







COPYKIGHT DEPOSIT. 


If ’ 




v / jL \ 

S ZjF^rf'f •**£/"?* 

8S/ s vNyjSi 



7mm 


7rr^^ij\ 

u . pgi XI 



-A m~A£ r9 - W >J^/^r 

/i *■*£ v/ j 

t i 

I ^-<L *■ r ■ W 

■i&c^vy 

lyT 


H^GBy^fgC 

. /f V/x 

.¥ m A'\ Ly 

~ V if a ._ tv | 


1 

Ltib> 

Ukg| 

y\f 1v “jK 

\) \1 
5 \I \ % 


H|j|| 

\ / 1 


tt-tS 


S0H 




















Cyclopedia of 

AUTOMOBILES 

Gas and Oil Engines and 
Farm Tractors 


A Complete Manual of Practical Information for Owners 
and Drivers of Automobiles, Operators of Oas and 
Oil Engines and Farm Tractors with Chap¬ 
ters on Electric Light and Water Supply 
Systems for Farm Homes 


By 

L E. BROOKES AND J. H. STEPHENSON 


n 


FULLY ILLUSTRATED 


CHICAGO 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. 

Published Expressly for SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO. 

1919 







Copyright 1919, 1918, 1917, 1916 
By 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. 



JUN 10 1920 


©CU570289 

'UA j 





The Automobile Handbook. 


Acetylene. The gas acetylene, as used for 
lighting on automobiles, is produced from cal¬ 
cium carbide by the action of water. The gas 
is carried in portable tanks under moderate 
compression and is dissolved in acetone, a 
liquid having the property of absorbing twenty- 
four times its own bulk of acetylene. 

Acetylene gas is composed of twenty-four 
parts of carbon and two parts of hydrogen by 
weight and is therefore classed as one of the 
hydrocarbons. This gas contains the highest 
percentage of carbon known to exist in any 
combination of this form. Carbon is the fuel 
used in all forms of combustion and is present 
in all fuels regardless of their source or form. 
In Table 1 is given, in heat units per cubic foot, 
the comparative heating power of acetylene and 
other gases. 

TABLE 1 

HEATING POWER OF FUEL GASES 

Acetylene .1500 Methane . ....950 

Alcohol.1500 Hydrogen .300 

Carbon Monoxide.320 

Acid. Usually refers to the liquid electro¬ 
lyte of the storage battery which is composed 
of a mixture of approximately three parts of 








8 


The Automobile Handbook 


water with one of sulphuric acid. See Storage 
Batteries. 

Air. Air consists, by weight, of oxygen 77 
parts and nitrogen 23 parts; by volume, of 21 
parts oxygen and 79 parts nitrogen. One pound 
of air at atmospheric pressure, and 70 degrees, 
Fahr., occupies 13.34 cubic feet of space. One 
cubic foot of air weighs 1 1-7 ounces. 

Air Resistance, Horsepower Required to 
Overcome. The power required to move a plane 
surface, such as the vertical projection of an 
automobile, against the air, does not become of 
much importance until the car attains a speed 
of 10 to 12 miles per hour, when it becomes an 
important factor. 

The horsepower required to propel an auto¬ 
mobile against the resistance of the air may be 
approximately calculated by the following for¬ 
mula. Let V be the velocity of the car in feet 
per second, and A the projected area of the 
front of the car in square feet—this may be as¬ 
sumed as the height from the frame to the top 
of the body multiplied by the width of the seat 
at the floor line of the car—let H.P. be the 
horsepower required to overcome the air re¬ 
sistance, then 

V 3 x. A 

LI.P.=- 

240,000 

To simplify the use of the above formula, 
Table 2 gives suceds in miles per hour corre- 



The Automobile Handbook 


9 


sponding to their respective velocities in feet 
per second and also cubes of velocities in feet 
per second. 


table 2. 

CUBES OF VELOCITIES IN FEET PER SECOND. 


Miles per 
Hour of 
Car. 

Feet per 
Second. 

Cube of 
"V elocity 
in Ft. per 
Second. 


Miles per 
Hour of 
Car. 

Feet per 
Second, 

Cube of 
Velocity 
in Ft. per 
Second, 

10.2 

15 

3,375 


34.0 

50 

125,000 

13.6 

20 

8,000 


40.9 

60 

216,000 

17 ,2 

25 

15,625 


47.7 

70 

343,000 

20.4 

30 

27,000 


54.4 

80 

512^000 

27.2 

40 

64,000 


61.3 

90 

729’000 


To ascertain approximately the horsepowei 
that will be necessary to drive a car against a 
wind of known velocity, the speed of the cat 
must be added to that of the wind, and the re* 
quired horsepower may be found either by use 
of the formula given or by reference to Table 
3, which gives the horsepower per square foot 
of projected surface required to propel a car 
against the resistance of the air, with varying 
speeds in miles per hour or velocities in feet 
per minute. 


table 3. 

HORSEPOWER REQUIRED PER SQUARE FOOT OF SURFACE, TO MOVE 
A CAR AGAINST AIR RESISTANCE. 


Miles per 
Hour of 
Car. 

Feet per 
Second. 

Horse¬ 
power per 
Square 
Foot of 
Surface. 

Miles per 
Hour of 
Car. 

Feet per 
Second. 

Horse¬ 
power per 
Square 
Foot of 
Surface. 

10 

14.7 

0.013 

40 


58.7 

0.84 

15 

22.0 

0.44 

50 


73.3 

1.64 

20 

24.6 

0.105 

60 


87.9 

2.83 

25 

36.7 

0.205 

80 


117.3 

6.72 

30 

44.0 

0.354 

100 


146.6 

13.12 


The horsepower given by the formula and 
Table 3 simply refers to the additional power 






































10 


The Automobile Handbook 


necessary to overcome air resistance and not to 
the actual power required to propel a car at a 
given speed; this is entirely another matter. 

Alcohol. There are two kinds of alcohol; 
methyl, or wood, alcohol, CH 4 0, and ethyl, or 
grain, alcohol, C 2 H 6 0. The former has been 
found objectionable for use in internal-combus¬ 
tion engines, because it apparently liberates 
acetic acid, which corrodes the cylinders and 
valves. 

As alcohol is a fixed product, and the same 
the world over, it has a great advantage as a 
motive power over gasoline and other petro¬ 
leum products. Denatured alcohol contains 
4,172 heat units per pound as compared to 
18,000 for gasoline, and, as its cost is higher, 
this fuel would not seem practicable from an 
economic standpoint. By mixing the alcohol, 
however, with a high grade of gasoline, its price 
is lowered, and the number of heat units per 
pound greatly increased. Mixtures containing 
50 pei cent alcohol have a calorific power of 
11,086 heat units per pound, and as it has been 
found by numerous tests in France that it re¬ 
quires no more of this mixture than of gasoline 
to develop a certain power, its efficiency is con¬ 
siderably greater, reaching a value of 24 per 
cent as compared to 16 for the gasoline motor. 
Tn some recent experiments in France with a 
motor specially constructed for the use of alco¬ 
hol, the consumption was lowered to 0.124 pound 


The Automobile Handbook H 

per horse power, using 50 per cent carburetted 
alcohol. 

Grain, or ethyl, alcohol has a specific gravity 
of . / 95, and may be obtained by distillation 
from corn, wheat, and other grains, potatoes, 
molasses, or anything containing sugar or 
starch. When pure, it absorbs water rapidly 
from the air, more rapidly in fact than it loses 
its own substance by evaporation; but when 
diluted to the proportion of about 85 per cent, 
alcohol and 15 per cent, water, it evaporates 
practically as if it were a single liquid and not 
a mixture. In France, it is denatured for mo¬ 
tor purposes by the addition of 10 liters of 90° 
wood alcohol, and 500 grams of heavy benzine, 
to 100 liters of 90° ethyl alcohol. In Germany, 
benzol is added to the extent of 15 per cent, for 
denaturing, no wood alcohol being used. In 
the United States the so-called “denatured’’ 
alcohol, which is that used in the arts and in¬ 
dustries, is composed of ethyl or grain alcohol, 
to which have been added certain diluents cal¬ 
culated to make it unfit for drinking. The In¬ 
ternal Revenue regulations specify that to 100 
volumes of ethyl alcohol there must be added 
10 volumes of methyl (wood) alcohol and one- 
half of one volume of benzine, or to the same 
quantity of ethyl alcohol must be added 2 vol¬ 
umes of wood alcohol and one-half of one vol¬ 
ume of pyridine bases. 

As compared with gasoline as a fuel for in- 


12 


The Automobile Handbook 


ternal-combustion motors, alcohol exhibits sev¬ 
eral striking peculiarities. 

First, the combustion is much more likely to 
be complete. A mixture of 90° alcohol vapor 
and air will burn completely when the propor¬ 
tion varies from 1 of the vapor with 10 of air 
to 1 of the vapor with 25 of air, thus exhibiting 
a much wider range of proportions for combusti¬ 
bility than is the case with gasoline. As the 
combustion is complete, the exhaust is practi¬ 
cally odorless, consisting only of water vapor 
and carbon dioxide. 

Second, the inflammability of an alcohol mix¬ 
ture is much lower. This is due partly, no doubt, 
to the presence of water in the alcohol, which 
is vaporized with the alcohol in the engine and 
must be converted into steam at the expense of 
the combustion. 

For these reasons, the compression of an al¬ 
cohol mixture is carried far above that permis¬ 
sible with a gasoline mixture, without danger 
of spontaneous ignition. The rapidity of com¬ 
bustion of alcohol in an engine is considerably 
less than that of a gasoline mixture, and for this 
reason the speed of alcohol engines must be 
somewhat slow. 

The facts that alcohol of sufficient purity for 
use in engines can be produced from the waste 
products of many of the country’s industries, 
and at a nominal cost, and that many thousands 
of acres of land, unfit for the cultivation of 
first-class grain, etc., may be utilized for the 


The Automobile Handbook 13 

production of vegetable matter rich in the ele¬ 
ments which form alcohol upon fermentation, 
lead to the supposition that within a few years, 
or as soon as there is a sufficient demand for 
alcohol to warrant the erection of special dis¬ 
tilleries, it may be purchased at such a low price 
that it will not only be commercially possible, 
but will in a measure force gasoline and other 
petroleum distillates from the field. 

A carbureter designed to operate with alcohol 
can always be used with gasoline, but the re¬ 
verse conditions are not true, that is, a gasoline 
carbureter will not operate successfully with 
alcohol, except in some rare instances. Alcohol 
evaporates slower than gasoline and its time of 
combustion is much slower, but it maintains its 
mean effective explosion pressure far better 
than gasoline. 

Explosive motors fitted with alcohol carbu¬ 
reters make far less noise than when using gaso¬ 
line as a fuel, due to the slower burning of the 
explosive charge, they also make less smoke 
and smell. 

The jet or spray of a float-feed carbureter will 
have to pass nearly 40 per cent, more liquid 
fuel than when using gasoline, consequently the 
opening in the nozzle must be proportionally 
larger. 

A carbureter using alcohol must be fitted with 
some form of device to heat the alcohol to en¬ 
sure rapid evaporation—this is usually done by 


14 


The Automobile Handbook 


surrounding the mixing-chamber with an ex¬ 
haust-heated jacket. 

The same quantity of alcohol will only take 
a car two-thirds of the distance that gasoline 
will, hence greater storage capacity would be 
needed on a car using alcohol as a fuel. 

An explosive motor designed to use alcohol 
requires a greater degree of compression than a 
motor of the same bore and stroke designed to 
use gasoline, in order to develop the same 
power. 

Alloys. In the following pages are given the 
compositions of the principal alloys (except 
Steel , which see) as recommended by the Society 
of Automotive Engineers. 

Aluminum .—Where a tough, light alloy, pos¬ 
sessing a high degree of strength combined with 
great lightness is desired the composition can 
be 90.0% aluminum and 7.0 to 8.5% copper. 

An alloy possessing strength, closeness of 
grain and freedom from blowholes in casting 
is composed of 84% tin, 9% antimony and 
zinc, 2.0 to 3.0% copper and not to exceed 0.4% 
of manganese. 

Bearing Metals .—A babbit metal suitable for 
the connecting rod linings of motor bearings or 
for any service of severe operating conditions 
is composed of 84% tin, 9% antimony and 
7 % copper. 

A white brass for use in engines is made 
from 65% tin, 28 to 30% zinc and 3 to 
6% copper. 


The Automobile Handbook 15 

Phosphor bronze is a composition having good 
anti-friction qualities combined with the ability 
to stand up under heavy loads and hard usage. 
It is used against hardened steel. The com¬ 
position consists of 80% copper, 10% tin and 
10% lead. 

Brass and Bronze .—Red brass, suitable for 
light bearings and castings and having good 
machining qualities is composed of 85% copper, 
5% tin, 5% lead and 5% zinc. 

Yellow brass for general brass casting work 
consists of 62 to 65% copper, 36 to 31% zinc and 
2% to 4% lead. 

A hard cast bronze suitable for severe work¬ 
ing conditions under heavy pressures and high 
speeds, also for light gears, valves, etc., is com¬ 
posed of 87 to 88% copper, 9.5 to 10.5% tin 
and 1.5 to 2.5% zinc. 

Gear bronze, for use in severe service and 
where quiet running is required, consists of 88 
to 89% copper, 11 to 12% tin and 0.15 to 0.30% 
phosphorous. This bronze is generally used in 
gears and worms. 

Manganese bronze is understood to mean a 
metal constituted principally of copper and zinc 
in the approximate proportion of 60 and 40, 
small quantities of iron and variable quantities 
of manganese being present. This metal jis 
used in castings where strength and toughness 
are required. It has a tensile strength of 
60,000 pounds per square inch. 


16 


The Automobile Handbook 


Aluminum alloys are commonly used in auto¬ 
mobile construction, these including the various 
grades known by the name aluminum, also 
aluminum bronze which contains a considerable 
percentage of copper and has been used simi¬ 
larly to manganese bronze. Magnalium is an 
aluminum alloy containing magnesium. It is 
lighter than aluminum and has greater strength. 
It is used for pistons. 

Brass of all kinds has copper for its base and 
zinc as its principal alloy. All bronzes have 
copper as the base and tin as the principal alloy. 
Gun metal is a bronze. Manganese bronze is 
in reality a form of brass. Tobin bronze, Delta 
metal, Tensilite, etc., are special alloys manu¬ 
factured under these trade names by certain 
makers. Monel metal is a natural alloy of cop¬ 
per and nickel which is mined and refined with¬ 
out changing the proportions. 

Alternating Current, Use of. It is not only 
useless but absolutely injurious to attempt to 
charge a storage battery directly from an alter¬ 
nating current circuit. This can only be done 
by means of a rotary converter, which is in 
reality a motor-generator, receiving its power 
from the alternating current and transforming 
it into a direct current which can be used to 
charge the batteries. 

Aluminum. A soft ductile malleable metal, 
of a white color, approaching silver, but with a 
bluish cast. Very non-corrosive. Tenacity 
about one-third that of wrought iron. Specific 


The Automobile Handbook 


17 


gravity 2.6. Atomic weight 27.1. It is the 
lightest of all the useful metals, with the excep¬ 
tion of magnesium. 





Fig. 2 

Direct Current Impulses 


Aluminum Solder. The following formula is 
for a solder which will work equally well with 
aluminum or aluminoid: Tin, 10 parts—cad¬ 
mium, 10 parts—zinc, 10 parts—lead, 1 part. 
The pieces to be soldered must be thoroughly 












18 The Automobile Handbook 

cleansed and then put in a bath of a strong 
solution of hyposulphate of soda for about two 
hours before soldering. 

Ammeter, Use of. Ammeters are quite gen¬ 
erally used in connection with electric starting 
and lighting systems, either as a permanent part 
of the equipment, or as an attachment used dur¬ 
ing the process of trouble location. 

When possible the ammeter should be so con¬ 
nected that it will measure all of the current 
flowing into the battery from the generator and 
so that it will measure all current leaving the 
battery except that used for starting the engine. 
An ammeter sufficiently great in capacity to 
measure the heavy flow during the cranking 
operation would not accurately measure the com¬ 
paratively small currents used for charging and 
lighting. It is therefore necessary to find a wire 
on the equipment that carries all of the charging 
current and all of the current for lighting and 
accessories, but which does not carry starting 
current. This attachment may usually be made 
by following one of the large cables from the 
battery until a smaller line branches from this 
cable at some terminal or junction. The am¬ 
meter should then be attached in this smaller 
line and as close to the large battery cable as 
is possible. 

Should the charging wires and the lighting 
wires be connected at different points, it will 
not be possible to make a single connection of 
the ammeter without changing the wiring. This 


The Automobile Handbook 


19 


is also the ease with many motor-dynamo systems 
in which no exposed line can be selected which 
carries only charging and lighting current. 

Ammeter, Construction of. Ammeters for 
automobile use are constructed on the principle 



Fig. 3 


of the D’Arsonval galvanometer with a perma¬ 
nent magnetic field. The special feature is a 
small oscillating coil mounted on cone-point 
bearings surrounding a stationary armature 
which is centrally located between the pole- 
pieces of a permanent magnet, with a pointer 
or index-finger which indicates the electrical 
variations on a graduated scale. 





























































20 


The Automobile Handbook 


The construction of an ammeter is fully 
show in the two views in Figure 3. The per¬ 
manent magnets used in its construction are of 
a special quality of hardened steel, made only 
for this purpose and possessed of great mag¬ 
netic permeability. The pole-pieces, which are 
of soft steel and well annealed, are attached to 
the inside of the lower part of the magnet legs, 
the joints between the pole pieces and the mag¬ 



net legs are usually ground to insure the full 
efficiency of the magnetic circuit. The soft iron 
core of the coil is for the purpose of rendering 
uniform the magnetic field in which the coil 
must oscillate. A coil of insulated wire is 
wound upon the stationary armature at right 
angles to its axis, in the same manner that 
thread is wound upon a spool, and is short-cir¬ 
cuited on itself, that is to say, the ends of the 
wire forming the coil are connected together. 
This coil of wire is for the purpose of choking 

























The Automobile Handbook 


21 


the magnetism induced in the stationary arma¬ 
ture by the oscillating coil, as it generates what 
are known as eddy currents within itself, thus 
making the instrument periodic, or dead-beat, 
in its indications. Around the armature core 
and outside the short-circuited coil of wire is 
wound the active or oscillating coil and at right 
angles to the direction of the winding of the 
first coil. The oscillating coil consists of a num¬ 
ber of turns of fine insulated copper wire, to 
which the current is conveyed through the me¬ 
dium of the controlling springs at each end of 
the spindle, which is in two parts and con¬ 
nected together by a suitable sleeve of insulat¬ 
ing material, as shown. 

The pointer or index-finger is made with a 
boss or hub to go over the end of the spindle of 
the active coil and also has an extension with a 
small counterweight or balance, so that the 
pointer may be accurately adjusted. 

The only difference in the construction of a 
voltmeter and an ammeter is that in the former 
the active or oscillating coil is in series with a 
high resistance, while in the latter it is con¬ 
nected across the terminals of a sTunt-block. 
The voltmeter is in reality an ammeter, the re¬ 
sistance serving to keep the amperage in step 
with the voltage. 

Reference to the three views, marked re¬ 
spectively A, B and C in Figure 4, will show 
clearly the principle of the operation of an 
ammetev or voltmeter, and the reason that they 


22 


The Automobile Handbook 


record the current strength or pressure of an 
electric current accurately. 

Ammeters are of two kinds, the double-beat 
type, as shown in Figure 3, which indicates the 
cui rent strength or number of amperes flowing 
in the electric circuit, without any regard to 
the polarity of the terminals of the circuit, by 
the pointer or index-finger moving either to the 
right or to the left of the zero position. The 



VOLT-AMM ETE R 

Fig. 5 

single-beat type of ammeter only records in 
one direction, by the pointer moving from the 
left to the right of the graduated scale of the 
instrument, consequently the polarity of the 
terminals of this type of ammeter are marked 
on its outer casing and the polarity of the ter¬ 
minals of the electric circuit must consequently 
be determined before connecting them with the 
ammeter. 





















The Automobile Handbook 


23 


Ampere. The unit of electric current flow. 
An ampere is that volume of current which 
would pass through a circuit that offered a re¬ 
sistance of one ohm, under an electromotive 
force of one volt. 

Ampere-hour, Definition of. The term am¬ 
pere-hour is used to denote the capacity of a 
storage or a closed-circuit primary battery for 
current. A storage battery that will keep a 2 
ampere lamp burning for 8 hours is said to 
have a 16 ampere-hour capacity. In a similar 
manner an 80 ampere-hour battery would ope¬ 
rate the same lamp 40 hours. The voltage of a 
battery does not enter into the calculation of 
its ampere-hour capacity. 

Annealing. A process of heating by means 
of which metals are relieved of internal strains 
and distortions. In some cases annealing is 
employed only to relieve strains, while in other 
cases it is desired to soften the metal sufficiently 
to allow its working. 

Steel to be ‘annealed is first heated to a dull 
red, the temperature being increased slowly so 
that all parts of the piece will have time to 
reach the same temperature at very nearly the 
same time. This heating is usually done in 
some form of oven by which the work is pro¬ 
tected against air currents. 

The work may be withdrawn from the fire 
or oven after reaching the desired temperature 
and allowed to cool in the air until no red can 
be seen when held in a dark place. If, upon 


24 The Automobile Handbook 

touching a pine stick to the steel, the wood does 
not smoke, the cooling may be completed in a 
water bath. 

Better results will be secured if the cooling 
time is extended by placing the work in a bed of 
ashes, charred bone, asbestos fibre, lime, sand 
or fire clay. The steel should be well covered 
with the heat retaining material and allowed to 
remain until cool. The greater the length of 
time between red heat and final coolness, the 
better will be the results of the annealing. 

While steel is annealed by heating and cool¬ 
ing slowly; copper or brass is annealed by 
bringing to a very low red heat and then cooling 
quickly by plunging into cold water. 

Armatures, Dynamo. The armature, 1 or re¬ 
volving member of lighting dynamos, is com¬ 
posed of a core made from wrought iron or mild 
steel. It is customary to make this core by as¬ 
sembling a sufficient number of thin plates 
made in the form of the cross section of the 
nore, these plates being covered with an insulat¬ 
ing composition and then fastened together on 
the shaft. This construction prevents the for¬ 
mation of harmful “eddy currents’’ within the 
metal. 

The assembled core has a number of slots run¬ 
ning lengthwise of its body and in these slots 
are placed the armature coils or winding of in¬ 
sulated wire. The coils are then connected to 
a commutator mounted on one end of the shaft 
in such a way that the current generated may 
be collected by the brushes. 


The Automobile Handbook 


25 


Armatures, Slotted and Shuttle Types of. 

An armature is the rotating part of a dynamo 
or electric motor which generates electricity or 
develops power. 



The armature shown at right of Fig. 6 is 
known as the Siemen’s H or shuttle type and is 
the simplest form of wire-wound armature 
known. The current given by this form of 
armature is of the alternating type and is con¬ 
verted into a direct-current, when desired, by 
means of a two-part commutator on the arma¬ 
ture shaft. 

The slotted type of armature shown at the 
left of Fig. 6 has a more intricate sys¬ 
tem of winding than the shuttle type just de¬ 
scribed. It has, however, a far greater elec¬ 
trical efficiency and gives off a steadier current 
than the shuttle type. It is the form most gen¬ 
erally used for automobile and street railway 
motors. Like the shuttle type of armature, the 
current generated by the slotted type of arma¬ 
ture is alternating, and is converted into a di¬ 
rect current by means of a commutator of very 
complicated form. 




26 


The Automobile Handbook 


Automobile. An automobile is composed of 
five parts, these including • first the power plant, 
second the transmission system, third the run¬ 
ning gear, fourth the control parts and fifth 
the body. 

Ihe power plant comprises the engine 
together with the parts required in order that 
the engine may generate power. The engine 
auxiliaries are: an oiling system for lubricating 
the moving parts, a cooling system for maintain¬ 
ing a temperature of the engine cylinders at 
"which lubrication may be secured, a fuel sys¬ 
tem by means of which the engine is furnished 
with a combustible gas, and an ignition system 

which causes an electric spark and ignites the 
fuel. 

The transmission system includes all of the 
parts which carry power from the engine to the 
driving wheels. These parts include the clutch 
by means of which the engine may be allowed 
to run with the car idle, a change speed gear 
which provides different ratios of relative speed 
between engine and driving wheels and also a 
reverse motion of the car, a differential for 
allowing one rear wheel to turn faster than the 
other, and a driving axle. 

The running gear includes all of the parts 
which support the power plant, transmission 
system control parts and body. It consists of 
the axles, wheels, tires, springs and the frame 
with its brackets. 


The Automobile Handbook 


27 


Axle, Front. So far it has not been found 
practical to combine the tractive and steering 
functions of an Automobile in one set of wheels 
and axle. Therefore it is necessary to use a 
rigid front axle with knuckle jointed spindles,, 
for steering purposes, and utilize the tractive 
power of the rear wheels only to propel the 
car. Some of the earlier forms of steering 
axles had the wheel pivots inclined so as to 
bring the projection of the pivot axis in line 
with the point of contact of the wheel with the 
ground, but as such constructions have not 
proved satisfactory they have in most cases 
been abandoned. 



Fig. 7 




































■28 


The Automobile Handbook 


In Figures 7 and 8 are illustrated four 
styles of front axles with steering-pivot ends: 
A shows a solid axle of square section, with 
the steering-pivot jaws and axle proper, of a 
single forging—B represents an axle of tubular 
cross-section with the steering-pivot jaws bored 



Fig. 8 


out to receive the tubular axle which is firmly 
brazed therein—C shows another style of tubu¬ 
lar axle, in which the steering-pivot jaw ends 
are turned down to fit the inside diameter of 
the tube and are also brazed in position, while 
D illustrates a one-piece axle with vertical hubs 


































The Automobile Handbook 


29 



Fig. 9 






































































30 


The Automobile Handbook 



STEERING KNUCKLE 


Fig. 10 





























































The Automobile Handbook 31 

instead of jaws, which carry L-shaped steering- 
pivots, instead of the usual form of knuckles. 

Steering Knuckles. In order to obtain ease 
of operation and secure the shortest turning 
radius with the least movement of the steering 
wdieel or lever, the knuckle of the steering pivot 
should be as close to the center of the wheel 
as is possible. It is also cf great importance 
that the steering knuckles should be as heavy 
as is practically consistent with the size and 
weight of the car for which they are intended. 
If this imporant point be neglected, rapid wear 
and probable fracture of the knuckles may be 
looked for. 

A steering knuckle with a spindle and pivot 
of T shape is shown in Figure 9. The spindle 
and pivot N and the steering arms 0 are usually 
a one-piece forging. The steering arms 0 are 
connected by means of a suitable distance rod 
and the steering lever P is attached to one of 
the pivots N by turning a shoulder upon it and 
pinning and brazing the steering lever and pivot 
hub together. 

Figure 10 shows a steering knuckle with 
spindle and pivot of L shape. The steering arm 
R goes on the lower end of one pivot Q only, 
the other pivot having the combined steering 
arm and ever S on its lower end. The steering 
arms being detachable, the device may be oper¬ 
ated from the right or left hand side by simply 
exchanging the levers R and S. The steering 
lever S has a ball upon its outer end to fit in the 


32 


The Automobile Handbook 



OIFF£RENTIAL 















































The Automobile Handbook 33 

socket on the connecting rod of the steering 
mechanism. 

Axles, Rear. The following definitions apply 
to the forms of rear axles that are now and 
have been in use on shaft-drive cars. 

A live axle ’ 1 (no longer used) is one in 
which the driving member is carried by a bear¬ 
ing at each end, the outer end carries the wheel 
and the inner end the differential. 



A semi-floating axle, ” Fig. 12, is one in 
which the driving member is carried on one 
bearing at its outer end and with the inner end * 
supported by the differential. The outer end 
carries the wheel. 

A ‘‘three-quarter floating axle/’ Fig. 13, is 
one in which the driving member is carried by 
the differential at its inner end and at the outer 
















































34 The Automobile Handbook 

end is carried by the hub flange, the flange itself 
being bolted to the wheel. The wheel is then 
carried by a bearing that runs on the outside of 
the end of the axle housing tube. 



A “full floating axle,” Fig. 14, is one in which 
the driving member is carried by the differential 
at its inner end and at the outer end is carried 
by a jaw clutch, the clutch itself being engaged 






































































































































The Automobile Handbook 35 

with and meshing with the wheel hub The 
wheel is then carried on two bearings that run 
on the outside of the axle housing tube. With 



Fig. 14 

Full-Floating Rear Axle With Annular Ball 

Bearings 

this construction, the drive shaft may be entirely 
withdrawn from the car without disturbing the 
wheel or other axle parts. 


































































































36 


The Automobile Handbook 


In this case the tube is reduced in diameter 
to take the bearings, and the shoulder so 
formed is taken advantage of in the process of 
providing for thrust. The shaft has no work to 
do excepting to take torsional moments, and 



of steel and drawn-steel parts. The inner race 
of the ball hearings is a sufficiently heavy tube, 
but it is not shaped in such a way as to act as a 
“preventer bearing,” hence complete depend¬ 
ence is placed on the ball bearings and they are 















































































































The Automobile Handbook 37 

made large enough to take the responsibility. 

Axle, Rear, Three-Quarters Floating. In 
this design, Fig. 13, the axle housing is ex¬ 
tended outward to a point in line with the out¬ 
side surface of the wheel, and the outer end is 
made of a diameter just large enough to allow 
the axle shaft to pass through it. Mounted on 
the outer end of the axle and directly in the 
center of the wheel is a single bearing, usually 
of the annular ball type. The wheel spokes are 
mounted in the hub flange in the usual manner 
and the flange is carried upon the outer surface 
of the bearing mentioned above. A large hub 
forging is bolted to the wheel flange and the 
bolts pass through the spokes which hold the 
brake drum on the inside. The outer end of 
the driving shaft is fastened into this hub forg- 
ing by a key way and taper; the inner end of 
the driving shaft is carried by the differential 
in the same manner as with a full floating type. 
It will therefore be seen that the radial load of 
the wheel is carried on the single bearing at 
the end of the housing, and this bearing is also 
required to carry the end thrust. The binding 
strains that are imposed upon the wheel when 
turning corners, for instance, • are provided for 
through the rigidity of the driving shaft, which 
is fastened solidly into the wheel hub at its 
outer end and which is carried by the differen¬ 
tial at its inner end. This gives a leverage equal 
in length to the distance between the outer bear¬ 
ing and point of support in the differential. 


38 


The Automobile Handbook 


Axle, Rear, Internal Gear. The internal gear 
type of rear axle as used on commercial cars 




Fig. 17 

Internal Gear Drive 

consists of two principal parts, one being a load 
carrying member consisting either of an “I” 
beam or tubular member on which the springs 






The Automobile Handbook 39 

and road wheels are mounted, and the other 
being a driving member which is much like the 
ordinary bevel gear type of rear axle with the 
exception that the outer ends of its shafts are 
fitted with spur gears which drive internally 
toothed ring gears, these ring gears being in 
turn fixed to the driving wheels of the car. The 


Fig. 18 

Details of Internal Gear Drive 



principle of such an axle is shown in Figure 16 
which illustrates the application of the gearing. 

The relation of the driving parts is shown in 
Figure 17, A being the small spur gear carried 
by the ends of the driving shafts, B the load 
carrying member and C the internal gear fixed 
to the wheel. Depending on the position of 
























40 


TJie Automobile Handbook 

















































































































































































































The Automobile Handbook 41 

the driving member, ahead of or behind the 
load carrier, the spnr gear A will be ahead of 
or behind the load member. Details of the con¬ 
struction at the wheel are shown in Figure 18 
which illustrates a type of axle (Russell) hav¬ 
ing the driving member in front of the load 
carrying tubular axle. It will be noted from, 
this illustration that a comparatively great gear 
reduction is secured between the spur gear and 
the internal gear, leaving a much smaller reduc¬ 
tion to be obtained between the bevel gears at 
the center of the driving member than would 
be the case with any form of single reduction 
employing spur or bevel gears. 

In Figure 19 is shown a plan view of the 
axle having the driving unit ahead of the load 
carrier. The comparative size of the bevel pin¬ 
ion and gear in the differential housing indi¬ 
cates the small reduction at this point. 

Figure 20 shows the construction of an 
internal gear axle having the live axle back of 
the “I” beam load carrying member (Torben- 
sen). In this case the small spur gear meshes 
with the internal gear at the rear side. 

Because of the greater part of the reduction 
being obtained at the wheel, the driving shafts 
in internal gear axles are lighter than the cor¬ 
responding parts in single reduction axles and 
in general, for a given load carrying capacity, 
these axles are found to be comparatively light 
in weight. This advantage is in part balanced 
by the increase in the number of gears, bearings 
and related parts. 


42 


The Automobile Handbook 



Fig. 20 

Internal Gear Rear Axle 


































































































































Fig. 21 

Truck With Internal Gear Axle 


The Automobile Handbook 



sa/yj$ 


























































































44 


The Automobile Handbook 


Figure 21 shows the application of another 
form of internal gear axle having a front 
mounted drive member (Clark) on a motor truck 
chassis. 



Fig. 22 

Worm Drive for Rear Axle 


Axle, Rear, Worm Driven. The worm type 
of rear axle is one of the best known and most 
widely used for commercial cars and electric 
vehicles, while it also finds a limited applica¬ 
tion on gasoline cars. The worm driven axle 
is especially suited to heavy loads and low 
vehicle speeds because of its ability to provide 
a great reduction of speed between the driving 
and driven shafts together with mechanical 
simplicity. 





































































































































The Automobile Handbook 


45 


The principle of the generally adopted con¬ 
struction is shown in Figure 22 which illustrates 
a worm mounted above the worm wheel. The 
differential and the remaining parts of the axle 
are similar to the corresponding parts as found 
in the ordinary form of bevel gear construc¬ 
tions. The mounting of the worm must provide 




for withstanding a heavy end thrust inasmuch 
as it is the push of the worm against the gear 
which must drive the car. In top-mounted 
worms, the type generally used, the thrust of 
driving the car forward is taken at the rear of 
the worm, while in a bottom-mounted worm it 










































































46 


The Automobile Handbook 


is taken at the front. With ball bearing mounted 
worms, the thrust from either direction, travel¬ 
ing forward or backward, is taken principally 
by the rear bearing by fixing the worm shaft so 
that it is held against lengthwise movement by 
this bearing only, the front bearing being left 
free to float and carry only the radial load. 

Figure 23 shows both a side and rear end 
view of the application of worm drive in a 



Fig. 25 

Removal of Worm and Worm Carrier 


truck axle. It will be seen that thrust bearings 
of ample size are placed at each side of the dif¬ 
ferential and worm gear in spite of the fact that 
the side thrust is less than with bevel gear axles. 

Figure 24 shows the external appearance of 
a complete worm drive axle (Sheldon) while 
Figure 25 shows the worm, worm wheel, dif¬ 
ferential and their carrier lifted part way out 
of the top opening in the main axle housing. 














Fig. 26 

Roller Bearing Worm Drive 



\ 

The Automobile Handbook 



















































































































































48 


The Automobile Handbook 


The type of worm commonly employed 
•requires practically no adjustment for meshing 
because the wear is distributed over such large 
surfaces that the initial setting is maintained. 
The large contact area and low unit pressure 
allow the use of dissimilar metals against each 



Fig. 27 

Roller Bearing Mounting of Worm 


other, steel being used for the worm and bronze 
for the worm gear in almost all cases. 

The worm gear is quiet in service and per¬ 
mits of complete enclosure against dirt and 
dust. These features, together with fewness of 
parts due to the single reduction are among its 















































































































TJie Automobile Handbook 


49 


advantages. The greatest fault with the worm 
gear axle is its weight in proportion to the load 
carried, this weight being required because of 
the loads imposed on the slowly moving parts. 
Great power can be exerted through a worm, a 
fact that is familiar to most people because of 
the use of various forms of screw and worm 
gearing to handle heavy loads. 



Fig. 28 

Worm Drive Axle With Spur Gear Differential 


Figure 26 shows a rear end section of a worm 
driven rear axle whose parts are carried by 
roller bearings of the tapered type. Figure 27 
shows a side elevation of the same axle (Tim¬ 
ken) and illustrates the method of taking the 
forward driving thrust on the rear bearing of 
the worm shaft and the reverse thrust on the 
forward bearing, this method being necessary 
because of the fact that taper roller bearings 

















































50 


The Automobile Handbook 


take thrust in but one direction. In the axle 
shown the comparatively light thrust from the 
sides of the worm gear is taken by opposed 
roller bearings. 

All of the axles shown and most of those in 
use employ what is called a straight worm, that 
is, a worm having a straight face and a thread 
parallel on its outside edges to the worm axis. 



Fig. 29 

Bottom Mounted Worm 


This type avoids the necessity for great ac¬ 
curacy in end adjustment. 

In Figure 28 is shown a rear elevation of a 
worm drive axle (Pierce) using ball bearings 
and spur gear differential. 

Figure 29 illustrates the method of carrying 
the worm below the worm wheel, a practice 
which is not commonly found except in a few 
electric cars. Here it will be seen that the large 
thrust bearing is placed ahead of the worm itself. 
It is claimed for the underneath worm that it 
is better lubricated because the bath of oil 
always surrounds the surface in contact. 




















































The Automobile Handbook 51 

v 

Batteries—Dry. A dry battery of the usual 
type consists of a zinc cell which forms the 
negative element of the battery. 




Pig. 30 

Six Cells Boxed to Make 
a Battery- 


Pig. 31 

Section Through 
Dry Cell 


Dry Batteries are very generally used on 
moderate speed and low-priced cars. They are 
simple in construction, comparatively simple in 
operation, and their action is easy to under¬ 
stand. Each cell is composed of three elements: 
The carbon, the zinc, and the electrolyte. The 
carbon usually takes the form of a round stick 
placed in the center of a cylindrical vessel made 
of zinc in sheet form. The space between the 
carbon and the zinc is filled with the electiolyte, 








































52 


The Automobile Handbook 


generally a solution of sal-ammoniac, which is 
poured in on crushed coke. The top is closed, 
or rather sealed, with pitch to prevent the loss 
or evaporation of the liquid. Through this, 
project the ends of the carbon and the zinc, these 
being formed into binding posts for holding the 
wires. As this holding of the wires must be an 
intimate relation, the usual form is a threaded 
shank upon which a pair of nuts are mounted. 
Between these the wire to be connected is 
crushed or compressed by the moving together 
of the nuts. 

The two poles or binding posts are called the 
positive and the negative, and are indicated by 
the + sign for the former and the — sign for 
the latter. Carbon being the positive element, 
the -j- sign attaches to it. Now, the act of con¬ 
necting these terminals together so as to allow 
a flow of current allows of two different meth¬ 
ods of procedure, a right and a wrong way, it 
is true, but that was not what was meant. 

In one respect dry batteries have a decided 
advantage over storage batteries for ignition 
purposes, from the fact that on account of their 
high internal resistance they cannot be so 
quickly deteriorated by short circuiting. 

On account of this high internal resistance, 
dry batteries will not give so large a volume of 
current as storage batteries, but a set of dry 
batteries may be short circuited for five min¬ 
utes without apparent injury and will recuper¬ 
ate in from twenty to thirty minutes, while a 


The Automobile Handbook 


53 


storage battery would in all probability be 
ruined under the same conditions. 

It is often desired to secure a greater voltage 
than one cell will give, or else to secure a source 
of current that will give a greater time of ser¬ 
vice than can be secured from the single cell. In 
either case, it is customary to combine two or 
more cells in certain definite combinations and 
connect them with each other in such a way 
that the desired voltage or length of life is 
realized. It is possible to make such combina¬ 
tions by using either dry or storage cells, 
although storage cells are usually boxed after 
forming. 



Fig. 32 

The Ordinary Battery Connection, in Series 
Two methods are usually employed, viz.: 
series, and multiple, or parallel. To connect 
dry batteries in series, the terminals are joined 
alternately, that is, the zinc of the first is con¬ 
nected to the carbon of the second, the zinc of 
the second to the carbon of the third, etc. 

When so joined, the positive element is left 
free at one end, and forms the positive terminal 
















54 


The Automobile Handbook 


of the group, which is then considered as a unit. 
The other free end (the negative) forms the 
negative terminal of the unit, see Fig. 32, which 
shows four cells connected in series. 

Figure 33 shows four cells connected in paral¬ 
lel which means that all of the positive termi¬ 
nals are connected to one common wire, and all 
negatives are connected to another wire. 

This mode of wiring up the cells gives a 
smaller output for the group. Thus if the in¬ 
dividual batteries have an internal resistance 



which is low in comparison with the external 
resistance, the total output will be but slightly 
more than that of a single cell. If, on the other 
hand, the internal resistance is high relative tc 
the external, the current will be roughly pro¬ 
portional to the number of cells. 

Where the cells are divided into sets or groups 
of a small number (four is usual), and more than 
one of these sets are used at a time, there are 
again two methods of joining them. These two 
are the same as before, viz., series and multiple. 


















The Automobile Handbook 


55 


The former is very seldom used, if ever, but the 
other is rather common. When two or more 
sets of batteries, themselves connected in series 
are, as sets, joined in multiple the whole is 
spoken of as connected in series-multiple. 



Batteries—Storage. A storage battery as 
used in ignition service, is usually of the lead- 
acid type, in which the electrolyte is sulphuric 
acid and water of a density about 1.2— specific 
gravity. The plates are of two classes—posi¬ 
tives and negatives—there being one more nega¬ 
tive than positive in each nesting in a ceil. 
The elements of a cell of storage battery aie 















































56 


The Automobile Handbook 



given in Fig. 35, and consist of the following: 
Positive plates A, of which there is one fewer 
than of negatives; negative plates B, of which 
there is always one more than positives; sepa- 


Fig. 35 

Elements of Assembled Battery 

rators C, which may be of wood, rubber, oi 
other suitable material, and if of wood must be 
treated; positive strap D, the function of which 
is to connect all the positive plates, across the 











The Automobile Handbook 


57 


top, into electrical relation; negative strap E r 
the function of which is to connect all the nega¬ 
tive plates, at the top, in electrical relation; bat¬ 
tery jar F, made of rubber composition, light, 
strong and acid proof; cover for the jar G, with 
holes for the terminals of the elements, and a 
vent; assembled cell of battery II, showing the 
elements in place, separated, with cover on; 
•ready for connections; 'and a battery box I, of 
oak, usually contrived to hold three cells of 
battery, sometimes two. 

The positive and negative plates, called ele¬ 
ments, consist essentially of a grid in each case, 
made of lead-alloy, in which antimony is used 
to engender stiffness. The grids are in divers - 
forms, depending upon the views of several 
makers, the idea being to afford space for the 
active material, and to lock the same in, so that 
it will not drift out, as it is prone to do, under 
the action of the charging, and discharging cur¬ 
rent. Surface is the great requisite, and it is 
the aim to afford the maximum area of the fin¬ 
ished plates, per pound of active material used; 
limiting the weight of the supporting grid, in 
so far as it is possible to do so. 

The voltage of a battery of this type is usu¬ 
ally 2.2 volts when the circuit is closed, but it 
drops to 2 volts within the first hour of using, 
which pressure it usually maintains during the 
next 5 hours, after which the voltage declines 
at a rapid rate. 

Adding Water to Cells. In service water 


58 


The Automobile Handbook 


will have to be added to the cells to compensate 
for evaporation, and for the loss that takes place 
during charge, brought about by the entraining 

of water with the bubbles of gas that shoot off 

* 

and out of the jars, if they are open, that is to 
say, if the covers are removed before and left 
off during charging, which is not usually the 
case. The result in any event is in favor of in¬ 
creasing strength of the electrolyte, and water 
will have to be added from time to time in order 
that the plates may not be exposed to the atmos¬ 
phere above the line of active material; which 
is a point that must be cared for if the battery 
is to last for a long time. The water so added 
should pe pure—distilled—and the right quan¬ 
tity to add, will be determined by means of a 
hydrometer placed in each cell between the sepa¬ 
rators if there is sufficient room, or the electro¬ 
lyte may be withdrawn through the utility of a 
gun made of hard rubber with a long slender 
neck. The test should be made when the bat¬ 
tery is charged and every cell should be exam¬ 
ined rather than to test one cell and conclude 
that all are in an average condition. 

Storage Batteries—Care of. Among the 
troubles that ultimately attend batteries in serv¬ 
ice the following are the most conspicuous: 

Hardening of negative elements; local action; 
buckling of plates; shedding of active material; 
sulphation; reversal of negative elements; dis¬ 
integration of grids; protruding active mate¬ 
rial; deformation of separators; broken jars; in- 


The Automobile Handbook 


59 


cipient short circuits; defective electrical con¬ 
tact: loss of capacity; loss of voltage; corrosion 
of plates, and needle formations. 

Hardening of the negative elements will fol¬ 
low if they are exposed to air, as when the elec¬ 
trolyte is allowed to fall below the level of the 
plates, from any process that will produce over¬ 
oxidization if the temperature is allowed to in¬ 
crease much above 90 degrees Fahrenheit. 
When the negative elements are hard, to reduce 
them back to the normal condition, assuming 
the process is not too far gone: Remove the 
elements from the jar, place the negatives in a 
cell, with dummy positives, and charge until 
the negatives are corrected, taking care not to 
charge at a too high rate. High temperature 
and excess boiling should be avoided. If the 
negatives are charged in their own cell with 
the regular positives the positives will be dam¬ 
aged by the excess charging that will be neces¬ 
sary to reduce the negatives. When the nega¬ 
tives are sufficiently charged to correct the evil 
they may be returned to their own cell, and 
when connected up with the positives the cell 
will be ready to go into service again, if in the 
meantime the positives are given such attention 
as their condition would seem to indicate. Local 
action, following impurities in the electrolyte, 
will only be prevented as much as it is possible 
to do so when the electrolyte is removed and 
pure electrolyte substituted in its stead. This 
should be done when the cells are fully charged. 


60 


The Automobile Handbook 


The electrolyte will hold most of the impurities 
when the battery is in the fully charged state. 

Buckling of plates, when batteries are defec¬ 
tive in design, rather than in cells of normal 
characteristics, is a trouble that w T ill follow in 
any cell if the discharge is allowed to extend 
below 1.8 volt as indicated by the cadmium test, 
rather than by the usual potential difference 
reading across the two sets of elements in the 
cell. If the rate of discharge is excessive, a 
condition that is not likely in ignition work, 
buckling will follow also. Short-circuiting the 
elements to see if the battery is alive will tend 
to buckle the plates, due to the heavy discharge, 
and the uneven rate of discharge over the sur¬ 
faces of the elements. In defective construction, 
if the active material is not of the same porosity, 
thickness, and in the same condition all over the 
surfaces of the plates, buckling will follow. 

Shedding of the active material, to a slight 
extent, is a normal condition of batteries; and 
to prevent trouble due to incipient short cir¬ 
cuits, such shedding is cared for by having a 
space in the bottom of cells to hold such 
shedded material. When elements are of in¬ 
ferior design and improperly constructed the 
active material w T ill shed at a rapid rate, and 
the user of the battery can do nothing more than 
demand a new battery to replace the defective 
one. If charging is done at a too rapid rate 
the active material will be loosened by the rap¬ 
idly escaping gas, and even on discharge, if the 


The Automobile Handbook 61 

rate is high, the shedding of active material is 
likely to follow. 

Sulphation, which is a normal expectation 
during discharge of a battery, introduces serious 
complications under certain conditions as when 
the active material is not in intimate contact 
with the grids thus allowing the electrolyte to 
get between the grids and the active material, 
with the result that sulphate, which is a high 
resistance material, isolates the grids and re¬ 
duces the efficiency of the cell in two ways; 
first, by increasing the ohmic losses, and, second, 
by lowering the chemical activity. Excess sul¬ 
phate is prone to form when the electrolyte is 
out of balance, and one of the best ways to 
abort this action is to keep the electrolyte with¬ 
in the prescribed limits of strength. If sulphate 
is allowed to form until white crystals show over 
the surfaces of the plates, it is highly improb¬ 
able that the cells will ever be of sufficient serv¬ 
ice to warrant continuing them in service. The 
only way to" afford relief lies in reducing the 
growth of sulphate by continuous charging the 
sick elements in a cell with dummies until the 
sulphate is reduced. A slow rate for a long 
time may bring about a reform. 

Negative elements to be reversed must be 
below capacity, or the cells must be discharged 
to zero and then reversed. In charging it is 
always necessary to make sure that the connec¬ 
tions are made in such a way that current will 
flow into the battery, rather than out of it. Volt- 


62 The Automobile Handbook 

meters in which permanent magnets are used 
will serve as polarity indicators, and with them 
it is possible to proceed with safety. If a bat¬ 
tery is connected up in reverse when it is put on 
charge, instead of being charged it will be dis¬ 
charged, and then charge in reverse. While it 
is'discharging it will deliver current to the line. 

Disintegration of grids will follow if the im¬ 
purities are allowed to enter the electrolyte, as 
iron, etc. Continued charging will also have 
the effect of reducing the grids to form salts 
of lead. 

Protruding active material indicates a lack 
of binding relation between the girds and the 
active materials. It may often be replaced by 
compressing the plates in a plate press. Defor¬ 
mation of separators, when they are made of 
rubber compound, follows when the cells are 
allowed to heat beyond a certain point. This 
trouble will be aborted if the cells are charged 
at a normal rate, and if the temperature is not 
allowed to increase beyond about 90 degrees 
Fahrenheit. When wood separators are used 
they will slowly rot and in time it will be neces¬ 
sary to replace them. 

Broken jars will allow the electrolyte to leak 
out, and frequently the fracture is but a minute 
crack, so that it is well to be on the lookout 
for just this kind of trouble. If the jars are 
properly nested and motion between them is 
prevented they will as a rule serve without 
breaking. 


The Automobile Handbook 63 

Incipient short circuits are likely to go un¬ 
noticed. They are generally due to detached 
particles of active material that lodge between 
the plates, especially in vehicle and ignition 
types, owing to the short distance separating 
the plates, and the use of separators, such as 
perforated rubber in the absence of wood, which 
have the virtue of being porous but too close to 
allow the active material do bridge across the 
space between the plates. 

Defective electrical contact is due to corrod¬ 
ing of joints that are not made by burning. 

Loss of capacity may be traced to such causes 
as: If the electrolyte is out of balance or below 
the level of the top of the plate; loss of active 
material from the grids; sulphate formed on 
the surfaces of the grids, isolating the active 
material; lack of porosity of the active material; 
impurities and sulphate clogging up the pores 
of the active material; low temperature; high 
temperature; persistent sulphation, and inter¬ 
cell leakage due to electrolyte spilled over the 
surfaces, especially if jars are in actual contact 
with each other. 

Loss of voltage, as distinguished-from loss of 
capacity, follows in a battery when one or more 
of the cells are dead or below voltage. If one 
or more of the cells are reversed they will set up 
a counter-electro-motive force, and the over-all 
reading of the battery will be reduced accord¬ 
ingly. The remedy is obvious. All the cells 


64 


The Automobile Handhole 


should read the same way, and all should have 
the same difference of potential, respectively. 

In view of the sulphated condition that at¬ 
tends all batteries that are discharged at a low 
rate for a long time, as is the case in ignition 
work, it is necessary to charge at a low rate for 
a long time in order to reduce the sulphate, 
which is in persistent form and very difficult 
to reduce. It will not be enough to correct the 
strength of the electrolyte once during the 
charging process for the reason that it will be 
difficult, if not impossible, to ascertain the con¬ 
dition of the same with any degree of accuracy, 
and the necessity for noting strength two or 
three times in the act of charging is apparent. 
When the battery is fully charged, which may 
take even sixty hours of continuous charging 
at a low rate, the electrolyte in every cell should 
stand at full strength, considering a state of 
full charge, and the color as well as other indi¬ 
cations of a full charge should be fully noted. 
Boiling at a slow rate should be tolerated for 
several hours, but the temperature should be 
held at about 90 degrees Fahrenheit during the 
entire time. If a battery is charged at frequent 
intervals it will last longer in service, give less 
trouble in charging and will be more reliable in 
service. It is well to begin charging directly a 
battery is taken out of service as any delay 
after that time will result in a marked deteriora¬ 
tion of the cells. 

When a car is put out of commission, even 


The Automobile Handbook 


65 


for a few weeks, the battery should be given a 
light discharge, and a subsequent charge as 
often as once a week, until it is again brought 
back into use. 

Storage Batteries — Charging. Positive 
plates in the charged state are of a velvety 
brown or chocolate color; negative plates have 
the color of sponge lead, which is very nearly 
light gray. When a battery is approaching a 
condition of full charge the color tones up quite 
noticeably, and it is possible to mistake a con¬ 
dition of full charge, if color alone is taken as 
the evidence; the exterior will have the appear¬ 
ance of full charge, since the active material, 
on the exterior surface, will reach its charged 
form first; if the thickness of active material on 
the grids is very thick, as it is likely to be in 
low discharge rate work, charging by color, 
as evidence of a state of full charge, will be to 
limited advantage. Details regarding the 
proper care and upkeep of storage batteries are 
given in the following pages. 

Storage Batteries—Testing. Tests for im¬ 
purities in the electrolyte may be made as fol¬ 
lows. For iron; 

Neutralize a quantity of the electrolyte to be 
investigated, after diluting the same, by the 
addition of an equal amount of pure distilled 
water, using strong ammonia water for the pur¬ 
pose. To the solution, so neutralized, add one- 
thirtieth of the amount of the same of hydro¬ 
gen peroxide, thus reducing any iron present 


66 


The Automobile Handbook 


to the ferric state. If a sample of this solution 
is rendered alkaline by the addition of a suffi¬ 
cient quantity of ammonia water, then, if iron 
is present, enough to amount to anything of 
great moment, from the battery point of view, 
a brownish red precipitate will form. A test 

for chlorine is as follows: 

Make a solution of nitrate of silver in the 
proportion of 20 grams of the same, in 1,000 
cubic centimeters of pure distilled water, and 
add a few drops of this solution to a small quan¬ 
tity of the electrolyte to be investigated; if 
chlorine is present the solution will turn white, 
owing to the formation of chloride of silver, 

which will precipitate out. 

A test for nitrates is as follows: In a test tube, 
holding 25 cubic centimeters of electrolyte to be 
tested, add 10 grams of ferrous sulphate; to 
this carefully add 10 cubic centimeters of chem- 
ically-pure sulphuric acid by pouring the same 
slowly down the side of the tube; in the pres¬ 
ence of nitric acid, a brown solution will form 
between the electrolyte to be tested, and the 
concentrated solution of sulphuric acid. 

The presence of copper may be detected from 
the fact that when ammonia solution is added 
to electrolyte, a bluish-white precipitate will 
form. In testing for mercury, lime water, if it 
is added to electrolyte in which mercury is pres¬ 
ent will evolve a black precipitate. Testing for 
acetic acid is as follows: To a small quantity 
of the electrolyte to be tested, add enough am- 


The Automobile Handbook 67 

monia water to render the same neutral; ferric 
chloride added to this solution will cause the 
same to turn red in the presence of acetic acid 
and the solution will then bleach, provided 
hydrochloric acid is added, thus affording con¬ 
clusive proof of the presence of the undesired 
acetic acid. 



ing and Engine Starting 


Battery, Storage, Starting and Lighting 
Types. The foregoing description and instruc¬ 
tions relating to storage batteries apply equally 
well to ignition, starting and lighting types. 
The following rules include the standard bat¬ 
tery instructions adopted by the Society of 
Automobile Engineers for the installation and 














































68 The Automobile Handbook 

care of batteries used in connection with elec¬ 
tric lighting and starting systems. 

Batteries must be properly installed. Keep 
battery securely fastened in place. Battery 
must be accessible to facilitate regular adding 
of water to, and occasional testing of, solution. 
Battery compartment must be ventilated and 
drained, must keep out water, oil and dirt and 
must not afford opportunity for anything to be 
laid on top of battery. Battery should have 
free air space on all sides, should rest on cleats 
rather than on a solid bottom, and holding de¬ 
vices should grip case or case handles. A cover, 
cleat or bar pressing down on the cells or ter¬ 
minals must not be used. 

Keep battery and interior of battery compart¬ 
ment wiped clean and dry. Do not permit an 
open flame near the battery. Keep all small 
articles, especially of metal, out of and away 
from the battery. Keep terminals and connec¬ 
tions coated with vaseline or grease. If solu¬ 
tion has slopped or spilled, wipe off with waste 
wet with ammonia. 

Pure water must be added to all cells regu¬ 
larly and at sufficiently frequent intervals to 
keep the solution at proper height. Add water 
until solution is level with inside cover. Never 
let solution get below top of plates. Plugs must 
be removed to add water, then replaced and 
screwed on after filling. The battery should 
preferably be inspected and filled with water 
once every week in warm weather and once 


The Automobile Handbook 69 

every two weeks in cold weather. Do not use 
acid or electrolyte, only pure water. Do not use 
any water known to contain even small quan¬ 
tities of salts of any kind. Distilled water, 
melted artificial ice or fresh rain water are 
recommended. Use only a clean metallic vessel 
for handling or storing water. Add water regu¬ 
larly, although the battery may seem to work all 
right without it. 

The best way to ascertain the condition of 
the battery is to test the specific gravity (den¬ 
sity) of the solution in each cell with a hydrom¬ 
eter. This should be done regularly. A con¬ 
venient time is when adding water, but the 
reading should be taken before, rather than 
after, adding water. A reliable specific gravity 
test cannot be made after adding water and 
before it has been mixed by charging the bat¬ 
tery or running the car. 

To take a reading insert the end of the rub¬ 
ber tube in the cell. Squeeze and then slowly 
release the rubber bulb, drawing up electrolyte 
from the cell until the hydrometer floats. The 
reading on the graduated stem of the hydrom¬ 
eter at the point where it emerges from the 
solution is the specific gravity of the electro¬ 
lyte. After testing, the electrolyte must always 
be returned to the cell from which it was 
drawn. The gravity reading is expressed in 
“points,” thus the difference between 1.250 
and 1.275 is 25 points. 

When all cells are in good order, the gravity 


70 


The Automobile Handbook 


will test about the same (within 25 points) in 
all. Gravity above 1.200 indicates battery more 
than half charged. Gravity below 1.200, but 
above 1.150, indicates battery less than half 
charged. When the battery is found to be half 
discharged, use the lamps sparingly until the 
gravity is restored to at least 1.250. If by 
using the lamps sparingly, the battery does not 
come back to condition, there is trouble in the 
wiring or generator system which should be 
investigated and remedied immediately. Grav¬ 
ity below 1.150 indicates battery completely 
discharged or “run down.” A run down bat¬ 
tery is always the result of lack of charge or 
waste of current. If, after having been fully 
charged, the battery soon runs down again, 
there is trouble somewhere in the system which 
should be located and corrected. Putting acid 
or electrolyte into the cells to bring up specific 
gravity can do no good and may do great harm. 
Acid or electrolyte should never be put into 
the battery except by an experienced battery 
man. 

Gravity in one cell markedly lower than in 
the other, especially if successive readings show 
the difference to be increasing, indicates that 
the cell is not in good order. If the cell regu¬ 
larly requires more water than the others, thus 
lowering the gravity, a leaky jar is indicated. 
Even a slow leak will rob a cell of all of its 
electrolyte in time and the leaky jar should im¬ 
mediately be replaced with a good one. If there 


The Automobile Handbook 71 

is^no leak and the gravity is, or becomes, 50 to 
75 points below that in the other cells, a partial 
short circuit or other trouble within the cell is 
indicated. A partial short circuit, if neglected, 
may seriously injure the battery and should 
receive the prompt attention of a good battery 
repair man. 

A battery charge is complete when, with 
charging current flowing • at the finish rate 
given on the battery plate, all cells are gassing 
(bubbling) freely and evenly and the gravity 
of all cells has known no further rise during one 
hour. The gravity of the solution'in cells fully 
charged as above is between 1.275 and 1.300. 

If for any reason an extra charge is needed 
it may be accomplished by running the engine 
idle, or by using direct current from an out¬ 
side source. In charging from an outside source 
use direct current only. Limit the current to 
the proper rate in amperes by connecting a suit¬ 
able resistance in series with the battery. In¬ 
candescent lamps are convenient for this pur¬ 
pose. Connect the positive battery terminal 
(with red post, or marked P or +) to the posi¬ 
tive charging wire and negative to negative. 
If reversed, serious injury may result. Test 
charging wires for positive and negative with 
a voltmeter or by dipping the ends in a glass 
of water containing a few drops of electrolyte, 
when bubbles will form on the negative wire. 
When charging, start at the starting rate and 
continue the charge at this rate until the cells 


72 The Automobile Handbook 

gas freely. Then continue the charge for six 
hours at the finish rate. The specific gravity 
at the end of the charge should read between 
1.275 and 1.300. If the specific gravity does 
not reach this point, continue the charge at the 
finish rate until the specific gravity stops ris¬ 
ing, which is an indication that the battery is 
fully charged. 

A battery which is to stand idle should first 
be fully charged. A battery not in active 
service may be kept in condition for use by 
giving it a freshening charge at least once a 
month, but should preferably also be given a 
thorough charge after an idle period before it 
is replaced in service. Disconnect the leads 
from a battery that is not in service, so that it 
may not lose charge through any slight leak 
in car wiring. 


The Automobile Handbook 


73 


TABLE 4 


LOAD CAPACITIES OF ANNULAR BALL BEARINGS 

(New Departure at 600 rev. per minute) 
Single Row Bearings. 


Bearing Balls 

Cap. 

Bearing Balls 

Cap. 

No. 

Diam. No. 

Lbs. 

No. 

Diam. 

No. 

Lbs. 

200 

7/32 

7 

135 

208 

7/16 

14 

1095 

300 

1/4 

6 

205 

308 

19/32 

11 

1590 

201 

7/32 

7 

175 

408 

13/16 

9 

2440 

301 

9/32 

6 

290 

209 

7/16 

15 

1175 

202 

7/32 

8 

215 

309 

21/32 

12 

2120 

302 

5/16 

6 

360 

409 

7/8 

10 

3140 

203 

1/4 

8 

280 

210 

15/32 

15 

1350 

303 

11/32 

9 

435 

310 

23/32 

12 

2540 

403 

1/2 

8 

820 

410 

15/16 

10 

3585 

204 

9/32 

8 

390 

211 

1/2 

16 

1640 

304 

11/32 

10 

485 

311 

25/32 

12 

3000 

404 

9/16 

8 

1035 

411 

1 

10 

4100 

205 

5/16 

12 

480 

212 

17/32 

16 

1850 

305 

13/32 

11 

745 

312 

27/32 

12 

3500 

405 

5/8 

8 

1280 

412 

1 1/16 

10 

4625 

206 

11/32 

13 

630 

213 

9/16 

17 

2215 

306 

15/32 

11 

990 

313 

29/32 

12 

4045 

406 

11/16 

9 

1745 

413 

1 1/8 

10 

5190 

207 

13/32 

13 

880 

214 

19/32 

17 

2455 

307 

17/32 

11 

1275 

314 

31/32 

12 

4620 

407 

3/4 

9 

2075 

414 

1 1/4 

10 

6415 



Double Row 

Bearings. 



300 

1/4 

8 

255 

311 

11/16 

11 

3690 

301 

1/4 

8 

360 

312 

3/4 

11 

4200 

302 

1/4 

10 

440 

313 

13/16 

11 

4825 

303 

5/16 

8 

515 

314 

7/8 

11 

5550 

304 

5/16 

9 

575 

315 

15/16 

11 

6400 

305 

3/8 

9 

1000 

316 

1 

12 

7200 

306 

7/16 

9 

1385 

317 

1 1/16 

12 

8200 

307 

1/2 

10 

1815 

318 

1 1/8 

12 

9100 

308 

17/32 

11 

2245 

319 

1 3/16 

12 

10000 

309 

9/16 

11 

2850 

320 

1 1/4 

12 

12000 

310 

5/8 

11 

3275 

321 

1 5/16 

12 

13400 


The Automobile Handbook 


74 

Bearings, Ball. Ball bearings may be broadly 
divided into three classes—thrust, cone and an¬ 
nular. Thrust bearings are those intended to 
sustain end thrust, and in them care must be 
exercised to see that the points of contact of 
the balls are exactly opposite, and that the 
grooves in which the balls run are formed to a 
sectional radius a little larger than that of the 
balls, thereby securing safe and easy move¬ 
ment of the balls. These grooves must be de¬ 
signed not only to give smooth rolling contact, 
but so that a measurable area of the ball’s sur¬ 
face contacts with the race. It is also possible 
for a thrust bearing to act at the same lime as 
a radial bearing, in which case, however, the 
four-point system must be used. In thrust bear¬ 
ings the balls are constantly under pressure and 
table 5 gives suitable loads for equal shaft diam¬ 
eters and revolutions for different sizes and 
numbers of balls: 


table 5 . 


Shaft 
Diameter, 
in inches. 

Allowable 

Load 

lbs. 

R.P.M. 

Number 

of 

Balls 

Ball 

Diameter 
in Inches 

2.55 

'550 

500 

22 

% 

2:55 

1,000 

500 

15 

% 

2.55 

1,200 

500 

14 

11/16 

2.55 

1,300 

500 

13 

% 

2.55 

1.600 

500 

12 

Vs 

2.55 

1,800 

500 

10 

1 


The adjustable cone bearing, Fig. 39, has been 
used in millions of bicycles with excellent re¬ 
sults, but under large loads has been found in¬ 
adequate. A ball can roll freely only with op¬ 
posite points in contact, and every third or 
















The Automobile Handbook 75 

fourth point of contact involves more or less 
spinning, or sliding movement of the ball, which 
shortens its life, and the bearing must operate 
to the detriment of the contact surfaces. 

The third and great type of ball bearing is 
the so-called annular one intended for radial 
loads. It consists of three elements—Two races 
and the balls. The new annular bearings re¬ 
quire no adjustment or fitting, and the rolling 
action of the balls takes place without interfer¬ 
ence of friction. A wonderful advantage of 
this bearing is that as high as 96 per cent of the 
space between the races can be filled with balls, 
the balls being introduced through filling lots 
whose size is a little less than the diameter of 
the balls to be introduced, so that the balls are 
forced between the two races under pressure 
and by virtue of the elasticity of the material. 
In the annular bearing but 30 per cent of the 
balls are under load at one time, and it is pos¬ 
sible for equal axle sizes and speeds to use dif¬ 
ferent dimensions and loading according to 
the size of the balls. Table 6 gives suitable 
loads for equal shaft diameter, and revolutions 
for various si?es, and numbers of balls. 


TABLE 6. 


Shaft 

Diam. 

inches 

Allowable 
load on 
Bearing - , lbs. 

K. P. M. 

No. of 

Balls 

Diam. of 
Balls, 
Inches 

3.14 

1,000 

500 

20 

Mi 

3.14 

1.300 

500 

21 

a 

3.14 

2,500 

500 

12 

i 

3.14 

3.000 

500 

14 

17* 

3.14 

4.FOO 

500 

11 

17* 
















76 The Automobile Handbook 

Annular ball bearings are also made with two 
rows of balls, and in the majority of them each 
ball is in a separate cage. Experiments have 
proven that, where the balls contact with one 
another, after a few years the friction results in 
grooves being worn in them. In Fig. 37 is shown 
the form of separator used in the F. & S. bear¬ 
ings. If in the application of this bearing it is 



Fig. 37 

F & S Bearing Separator 


necessary to sustain heavy axle loads, it is ab¬ 
solutely necessary to add an independent thrust 
bearing, or to employ a combination bearing 
which takes the place of bolt thrust and radial 
loads. 

Ball Bearings —Two in One. Figs. 38, 39, 
and 40 illustrate a ball bearing manufactured at 
Bristol, Conn., which owing to its dual ability as 































The Automobile Handbook 


77 


as expressed by its name (“two in one”) is 
especially adapted to automobile service. Its 
makers claim that it is able to withstand radial 
or thrust loads, or any combination of the two, 
with the use of but a single bearing with its 
attendant simplicity of mounting. In order to 
bring about this result, two rows of balls are 

employed in staggered relation to one another, 

# 

and the ball races are so arranged that the line 



Fig. 38 

Assembled Bearing Complete 


of pressure is either at an angle of 45 degrees 
or 60 degrees with the horizontal, when the axis 
of rotation of the bearing is in a horizontal 
plane. 

Figure 38 shows the permanent assembly of 
the bearing, sufficient metal being provided in 
the shell to permit of drawing the latter tightly 








78 The Automobile Handbook 

Figure 39 shows the various parts of this 
bearing, and Fig. 40 is a semi-sectional view: 
showing the order of their assembly, from the 
shaft outward, as follows; the cone, the separa¬ 
tor, the two cups and the shell. It will be no¬ 
ticed that the line of pressure of the cone, cups, 



Fig. 39 


and balls is at an angle of 45 degrees with the 
horizontal, and this feature applies equally to 
both rows of balls, thus Adapting the bearing 
to withstand a load from any angle. Two semi¬ 
circular races are turned in the cone to receive 
the balls, while the sheet metal separator is so 
stamped that the ball retaining notches are 











The 'Automobile Handbook 


79 


staggered with reference to each other. These 
openings are made slightly larger than the ball, 
diameter, so that the contact between the ball 
and separator is said to be a point contact at 
one end of the axis of rotation, while the weight 
by separator is carried on the balls at the top 
of the bearing. By maintaining the relative 
positions of the balls at all times, cross friction 



Fig. 40 

Sectional View of Bearing 

O 


it is claimed is entirely eliminated, while the 
friction introduced by the use of the separator 
is practically negligible. 

Ball Bearings—Lubrication of. Ball bear¬ 
ings must be so housed in as to retain lubricant 
and exclude dust, grit, etc. An impression that 
ball bearings will operate without lubricant is 
quite general. It is barely possible that abso¬ 
lutely true spheres might roll on absolutely 


80 The Automobile Handbook 

true surfaces if both were made of materials 
that were absolutely inelastic, and therefore 
would remain true under load. But since such 
absolute perfection of the shape is not to be had, 
some means must be taken to provide and re¬ 
tain lubricant. 

Rust and acid must be kept out of ball bear¬ 
ings. Experience and most carefully conducted 
tests have proven that long life under load can 
be realized from ball bearings only when the 
surfaces are not only true, but are also highly 
polished and smooth. Roughness will be broken 
down and leave still greater roughness. Rust 
and acid will destroy originally true and smooth 
surfaces. Since not a few lubricants contain 
free acids, care in their choice must be exercised. 
Plentiful lubrication and a properly closed 
mounting are safeguards against rust. 

In the lubrication of ball bearings it is advis¬ 
able to use vaseline; or, when a lubricant of 
greater body or stiffness is desired, to use a mix¬ 
ture of vaseline and some high-grade mineral 
grease. The grades known as semi-fluid are very 
well suited for this use and any combination 
may be used with success in such cases. 

Annular Ball Bearings. In the annular ball 
bearing, Fig. 42, a race of balls C is contained 
between an inner retainer A and an outer race 
B, there being grooves in the opposing surfaces 
of these to. receive the balls. In a Hess-Bright 


The Automobile Handbook 


81 


bearing of this type, as illustrated in Fig. 41, 
the entire space between the races C and B is 
not occupied by balls, but is utilized in different 
ways. In this only enough balls to make a half 
circle in the bearing are used, and these are 
spaced apart by means of small helical springs. 
These springs contain oil pads of felt, and are 
headed by sheet-metal discs that extend far 



Fig. 41 

Hess-Bright Bearing 


enough into the grooves to prevent sidewise dis¬ 
placement of the springs, without, however, 
producing any more than a negligible friction. 
Assembling this bearing one race is placed ec¬ 
centric to another race and the requisite num¬ 
ber of balls slipped into positions, after which 
the races are made concentric and the balls reg¬ 
ularly distributed. This done, the separating 
springs with lubricating means are installed. 



82 


The Automobile Handbook 


Once the spring's are in place the tension of them 
is such as to make the bearing self-contained. 



Fig. 42 

Annular Ball Bearing 


It is not practicable to disassemble or repair 
the various forms of annular ball bearings in 
the ordinary shop. These forms are not adjust¬ 
able and are not designed to be taken apart. 
. ^ 1S possible to reform the races and to 
insert new balls when the bearing is badly worn 
or scratched, but such work must be done with 
machinery and tools especially designed for 
handling it. Ball bearing repairs are handled 
by various, companies who specialize on such 
work and it will always be advisable to com¬ 
municate with one of them. 

Bearings, Plain. The composition of metals 
for plain bearings is given under the heading 
Alloys.” Plain bearings are used generally 
for connecting rod crank pins, wrist pins and 






The Automobile Handbook 


83 


crank shaft bearings in automobiles. The 
material and dimensions are determined accord¬ 
ing to the pressure exerted on the bearing wnich 
is measured in pounds per square inch for the 
projected area of the bearing, this area being 
equal to the bearing diameter multiplied by its 
length. The maximum allowable pressure is 
one beyond which the oil film will not be main¬ 
tained, this in turn depending on the char¬ 
acteristics of the oil used and the method of 
introducing the lubricant between the bearing 
surfaces. 

Some of the generally accepted limits for 
maximum bearing pressures in automobile con¬ 
struction are as follows: For the crank shaft; 
front bearing 850 pounds, rear bearing 700 
pounds, center bearing 900 pounds. For con¬ 
necting rod lower end bearings 1400 pounds 
and for wrist pin bearings 2200 pounds. 

Plain bearings are held by steel journals and 
caps and the bearing proper, called the liner, 
may either be in one piece composed entirely of 
the bearing metal or made by applying a shell 
of the bearing metal inside of an outer shell 
of some stronger material such as steel or hard 
bronze. The halves of split bearings are held 
in proper relation by thin strips of metal called 

shims. 

Hard and Soft Bearings. There are two 
general classes of solid bearings, those which 
contain a large per cent of copper and a small 
amount of the softer metals; which are known 


84 


hie Automobile Handooou 


as hard metals, as brass or bronze. Those which 
contain a large proportion of tin or lead and a 
small per cent of copper are known as soft 
metals—as babbitt-metal, anti-friction metal and 
white metal. 

In some instances and under certain condi¬ 
tions it has been found that a good close-grained 
cast iron makes an excellent bearing metal. 
Being of a granular nature, it has the property 
of retaining the lubricant in place, even when 
highly polished and under great pressure, with 



Fig. 43 Fig. 44 

Types of Plain Bearings 


a low co-efficient of friction, but is too brittle 
to withstand severe shocks. 

Plain Bearings. Plain solid bearings are 
used on many parts of an automobile, particu¬ 
larly in the engine and transmission bearings, 
although ball and roller bearings are taking 
their place in many constructions. The major¬ 
ity of the cars use brass, bronze or babbitt-metal 
on the main and crankshaft bearings, while ball 
and roller bearings are used on the transmission 
and wheel bearings. A typical plain bearing is 
shown in Fig. 43, in which A is the journal made 
of steel, while the bearing members shown at 





















The Automobile Handbook 85 

B. B. are made of either brass, bronze, or babbitt 
metal. Figures 44 and 45 show different types 
of connecting rod bearings. For plain-bear¬ 
ings, the shafts of which are continuously run¬ 
ning at a high rate of speed, such as motors 
and speed-change gears, the working pressure 



per square inch should not exceed 400 pounds. 
As the arc of contact or actual bearing surface 
of a journal bearing is assumed as one-third of 
the circumference of the journal itself, the pres¬ 
sure per square inch upon a bearing is therefore 
equal to the total load upon the bearing, divided 














86 


The Automobile Handbook 


by the product of the diameter of the journal 
times the length of the bearing. 

Let D be the diameter of the journal or shaft 
at its bearing, and L the length of the bearing, 
if W be the total load or pressure upon the bear¬ 
ing and P the pressure in pounds per square 
inch of bearing surface, then 

W 

P =- 

D X L 

If the total load or pressure on the bearing 
be known and the diameter of the shaft given, 
then the proper length of the bearing will be 

W 

L =- 

DXP 

If the length of the bearing be known and 
other conditions as before given, then the proper 
diameter of the journal will be 

W 

D =-- 

PXL 

Adjustment of Plain Bearings. The halves 
of split plain bearings will require adjustment 
or re-fitting after a considerable period of use 
and wear. This adjustment may be made either 
by removing a part of the shims, by filing the 





The Automobile Handbook 


87 


side of the retaining cap or by scraping the 
inner surfaces of the liners. 

Shims are the thin metal pieces found 
between the halves of the bearing at each side. 
One shim should be taken out of each side of 
the bearing, the cap replaced and the holding 
bolts tightened. If the shaft still turns freely 
another pair of shims, one from each side, should 
be removed. This process should be continued 
until the shaft binds in the bearing. After 
this binding is secured, the cap should again 
be removed and one pair of thin shims replaced 
so that, when oiled, the shaft will turn freely t 
but without play. 

If no shims are used the adjustment may be 
made by placing the bearing cap in a vise and 
draw-tiling straight across both edges with a 
tine toothed double-cut file. If the work is 
properly done each side of the cap will be 
lowered evenly with the other. Should the shaft 
bind after replacing the cap and tightening the 
bolts, two thin shims should be made and one 
placed on each side. 

The best fit will be secured by removing shims 
or filing and then finishing the fitting by scrap¬ 
ing the bearing to a good fit. With the cap and 
liner removed, some form of color, such as Prus¬ 
sian blue, should be applied in a thin even coat 
to the shaft surface. The cap shcruld then be 
replaced and the bolts tightened. The shaft 
should now be turned once around and the cap 
removed. Wherever the color has been rubbed 


88 


The Automobile Handbook 


onto the inner surface of the bearing liner the 
liner metal should be removed by scraping the 
high spot or surface thus indicated. After scrap¬ 
ing, the shaft is again covered with the color, is 
turned once around and the process repeated 
until at least two thirds of the entire inner 
surface of the liner shows the color. 

The handle of the bearing scraper should be 
held rather loosely with the fingers of one hand 
and laid lengthwise of the bearing liner so that 
two edges of the scraper rest on the bearing 
metal. The scraper blade can then be lightly 
pressed against the liner metal with the fingers 
of the other hand, when, by moving the blade, 
a thin layer of metal can be removed. 


The Automobile Handbook 


89 


A 

Bearing, Roller. A form of bearing used in 
a large number of cars of all types is that 
known as the roller. This form is made in three 
distinct types, one of which is known as the 
taper roller, another one the solid straight 
roller, and the third one the flexible roller. 

The taper roller bearing, Fig. 46, is composed 
of an inner and outer race, the inner race being 

























Taper Roller Bearing 

designed to fit over the shaft and the outer one 
being carried by the bearing housing. The 
outer surface of the inner race is conical in 
form and the inner surface of the outer race is 
of a form to correspond, that is, its internal 
diameter is smaller at one side than at the 
other. Between the two races is carried a series 
of steel rolls, each one of which is tapered so 
that it fits between, and bears along its entire 
length on both races. This forms a bearing of 
anti-friction qualities similar to the annular 
ball, with the exception that the contact be¬ 
tween the rolling members and their supports 











90 The Automobile Handbook 

is a line rather than a point. It is customary 
to maintain a predetermined distance between 
the separate rolls by providing cages into 
which the rolls fit loosely. It will be seen that 
because of the tapered formation it would be 
impossible to press the inner race hard enough 
to cause it to pass completely through the outer 
race with the rolls in place, while in the other 
direction the inner race would drop out because 
of its own weight. This feature allows the 
tapered roller bearing to withstand a large 
amount of end thrust when this thrust is ap¬ 
plied on one side of the bearing only. 



Fig. 47 

Straight Solid Ftollor Bearing 


Roller bearings are made of an inner and 
outer race with both surfaces of each race truly 
cylindrical, Fig. 47, and between these races is 
carried a series of straight cylindrical rolls. 
With plain rolls in use, the bearing will not 
withstand any end thrust because of the fact ' 
that the races and rollers will move freely over 











Hyatt Self-Oiling Self-Contained Roller Bearing 


The Automobile Handbook 91 





92 


The Automobile Handbook 


each other in the direction of their axes. When 
it is desired to have this type of bearing with¬ 
stand a thrust load, one or both of the races 
must be made with either a ridge or a groove 
at or near one edge and the rolls must then 
have a corresponding ridge or groove to en¬ 
gage the race.* 

The flexible roller bearing is made by the 
Hyatt Roller Bearing Co. and consists of two 
races, each of which is tubular or cylindrical 
in form, and between these races is carried a 
series of rollers, as in other types previously 
described, differing in that the rolls are formed 
from a piece of comparatively thin flat steel 
twisted into a spiral. It is from the springiness 
of this form of spiral roller that the bearing 
takes its name, “ Flexible.’’ 

The load capacities of Hyatt roller bearings 
in sizes having the same outside dimensions as 
annular ball bearings of the same number are 
as follows at 500 revolutions per minute: 


Bearing- 
Number Pounds 

Bearing 

Number Pounds 

Bearing 

Number Pounds 

307 

1,855 

312 

4,750 

317 

10,400 

308 

2,050 

313 

5,570 

318 

11,000 

309 

2,520 

314 

6,900 

319 

12,300 

310 

3,450 

315 

7,920 

320 

14,200 

311 

4,170 

316 

8,775 



The Automobile Handbook 


93 


Bendix Drive. The Bendix drive, Fig. 49, 
consists of a solid or hollow shaft having screw 
threads on the outside, and a hollow gear hav¬ 
ing screw threads on the inside, so that the 
gear screws on the shaft like a nut on a bolt. 
A circular weight is fastened to the gear, and 
is slightly out of balance. A coil spring con¬ 
nects the electric motor shaft and the hollow 
screw shaft. 



Fig. 49 

Starting Motor With Bendix Drive 
When the electric motor starts it drives 
through the spring and turns the screw shaft. 
Because of the weight, the gear is too heavy to 
turn with the screw shaft, and because the 
gear does not turn it must move along the 
screw shaft (just the same as if you turned a 
holt having a nut on it, and kept holding the 
nut with your fingers to keep it from turning 
so that it would be screwed along the bolt). 
After the screw gear has moved along the 
screw shaft and engages with the flywheel gear 
it then keeps on moving along until it reaches 







94 


The Automobile Handbook 


the stop at the end of the screw shaft. The 
two gears then are fully meshed, and it is obvi¬ 
ous that when the screw gear has reached the 
stop it cannot move any farther, and it then 
must turn with the screw shaft. At this par¬ 
ticular moment the screw shaft and electric 
motor are revolving at a great speed, and this 
great blow and the power of the electric motor 
<ire both taken through the coil spring. The 
spring keeps coiling until all this power has 
been applied to the flywheel gear and the en¬ 
gine starts turning. 

As soon as the engine starts exploding and 
runs under its own power, the flywheel of 
course turns much faster than it was cranked 
by the starter. Because it is now turning so 
much faster it increases the speed of the screw 
gear so that 1 the latter runs faster than the 
screw shaft on which it is mounted. It is there¬ 
fore plain that if the screw gear runs faster 
than the screw shaft, that it will be screwed 
on the threads of the shaft (like a nut on a bolt) 
until it has been screwed out of mesh with the 
flywheel gear. This demeshing movement is 
entirely automatic and eliminates the use of 
an overrunning clutch. And now that the 
screw gear is out of mesh it is natural to sup¬ 
pose if the electric motor keeps running that 
the gear will be automatically screwed right 
back into the mesh with the flywheel gear. But 
the unbalanced weight on the screw gear per- 


The Automobile Handbook 


95 


forms its automatic function. That is, being 
slightly out of balance, the weight twists or 
cocks the screw gear so that it clutches and 
binds on the screw shaft and turns with it. This 
automatic clutching is all due to the centrifugal 
force of the unbalanced weight. 

When the electric motor stops running, the 
screw gear has been fully screwed away from 
the flywheel gear, and it remains in that re¬ 
tarded position until it is again required to 
start the engine. 

The screw shaft should never be oiled or 
lubricated. It is not necessary and, in fact, 
the screw gear works to the best advantage 
when the screw shaft is dry. 

Through accident or otherwise, should the 
flywheel ever be entirely exposed and unpro¬ 
tected, and should the gear tend to stick on 
the shaft, it may then be necessary to clean 
the screw. 

The teeth on the screw gear and flywheel are 
chamfered or pointed on only one side to make 
the meshing natural and easy. However, should 
the teeth meet, end to end, the screw shaft 
itself is designed to move automatically back¬ 
wards, against and compress the coil spring. 
This gives the screw gear time enough to turn 
and enter the flywheel gear. Should sticking 
of gears ever occur, they can be released by 
throwing in the clutch and moving the car. 
Such' trouble would be due to incorrect cham- 



96 


The Automobile Handbook 


fering or inaccurate alignment of the gears. 
Also it might be due to the binding of the drive 
parts and prevent compressing and proper func¬ 
tioning. Such defects should be corrected. 

If while the engine is running, the electric 
motor should be accidentally started, the screw 
gear will of course screw over against the turn¬ 
ing flywheel gear. But instead of the clashing 
and smashing of gears that might be expected 
there is no damage whatsoever, as the gears 
simply touch once. This is because the flywheel 
gear will speed up the screw gear, and thus 
automatically screw it away. The turning screw 
gear will then automatically clutch and bind 
on the screw shaft, in exactly the same manner 
as when it is cranking and has been demeshed 
when the engine starts exploding. 

Bodies. In the construction of automobile 
bodies the sills are made strong, and the super¬ 
work is rendered independent of the actual 
structural strains. Wood is generally used in 
the framing, although it is sometimes replaced 
by cast aluminum. 

When wood is used for framing, sheet alumi¬ 
num, steel and thin layers of* wood are em¬ 
ployed. The aluminum is laid on a form and 
beaten to the shape required 'for the panel. The 
steel sheets are die formed, while the wood is 
made flexible in order that it may be bent to 
its proper shape when fastened to the body. In 
order to have the car of light weight, all body 
builders use the lightest materials possible in 


The Automobile Handbook 


97 


the construction of that portion which lies above 
the chassis. 

When aluminum is used in the panels and 
for facings, care must be exercised to prevent 
water from creeping in between the metal and 
the framing, because water causes an electro¬ 
lytic action on the aluminum plates. To prevent 
the oxidation of sheet steel, the plates are either 
coated with aluminum or zinc, or they are given 
a priming coat of paint on the inside. 

As a general thing, putty is not used in the 
construction of bodies, as there ate few joints 
which require it. In the very best body paint¬ 
ing twenty coats are used before the paint as¬ 
sumes its proper finish. The first coat, or prim¬ 
ing coat, generally consists of pure white lead 
mixed in oil. After that the second priming coat 
-is given to it, and from then on the number 
of coats of rough paint will depend upon the 
nature of the surface and the degree of finish. 
For a very fine finish, the last coats consist of 
varnish, but when wagon finish is desired, the 

last coats consist of paint. 

Finishers must take into account the fact that 
all cars are more or less abused in service, and 
it is to be expected that the magnificently 
equipped limousine will have a somewhat finer 
finish than the hard used touring car. 

Classification of Bodies. Besides being 
classified according to the type of gasoline em 
gine, methods of transmission, number of cyl¬ 
inders, etc., automobiles are also classified ac- 



98 


The Automobile Handbook 


cording to tlie type of body which is mounted 
on the chassis. Vhile there are a considerable 
number of names which are given to the same 
types of pleasure automobiles, they may be gen¬ 
erally classified as runabouts, roadsters, toura- 
bouts, touring cars, town cars or taxicabs, lan- 
daulets, limousines and semi-limousines. Elec¬ 
tric automobiles are generally divided into 
coupes, brougham, stanhopes, runabouts, phae- 
ton», etc. Steam cars follow the same general - 
classification as gasoline machines. Commer¬ 
cial vehicles may be classified as taxicabs, deliv¬ 
ery wagons, trucks, busses, wagonettes, ambu¬ 
lances, patrol wagons and other forms for fire 
service. 

Commercial Vehicles. In the commercial 
vehicle field steam, electric and gasoline ma¬ 
chines are used. Electric vehicles are used for 
certain purposes, from heavy trucks to light 
delivery wagons, usually only for short dis¬ 
tances. Steam power is not at present being 
used to any extent for heavy trucks, while* 
the gasoline commercial is used for trucks,' 
business wagons and quick deliveries. 

The commercial vehicle may be classed as 
follows : Taxicabs, general delivery, light trucks, 
heavy trucks, coal wagons, sight-seeing cars” 
busses, ambulances and particular other types 
for special purposes. 

Since, for general purposes, the speed of com¬ 
mercial vehicles is small, they are not neces¬ 
sarily equipped with high power, as a heavy 


The Automobile Handbook 


99 


oar, which would travel at a high speed, would 
he apt to be dangerous. The speeds obtainable 
range on an average between twenty miles per 
hour for delivery wagons, to five miles per hour 
for heavy trucks. 

While there are many distinct types of car 
bodies, there are more names in use than there 
are bodies, because different makers often apply 
different names to the same type of body, and 
often list a certain type of body under a name 
different from the one ordinarily accepted. This 
practice makes it difficult to state positively that 
a certain type of body will be called by a given 
name by a maker although that particular body 
is of its own distinctive type regardless of the 
name applied in the catalogues. 

Bodies may be classified according to the num¬ 
ber of persons carried, whether they are wholly 
or partly enclosed and according to the purpose 



Fig. 50 

Five-Passenger Touring Car 
for which they are designed. None of these 

divisions is very satisfactory, because some types. 






100 


The Automobile Handbook 


would appear in more than one division. The 
following definitions are those generally ac¬ 
cepted. 

Touring Car. This is an open car, Figs. 50 
and 51, for general purposes which may seat 
four, five, six or seven persons, including the 
driver. It has sides and doors, but when pro¬ 
tection from the weather is desired the operator 
uses a folding top and curtains. 



Fig. 51 

Seating Arrangement in Four-Passenger Car 

A touring car seating five is called a five-pas¬ 
senger touring car, one seating seven is called a 
seven-passenger touring car, and so on for any 
number of passengers. The rear compartment of 
a touring car is called a tonneau, the front com¬ 
partment is called the driver’s compartment. 

Close-Coupled or Toy Tonneau. A four- 
passenger touring car With the rear seat brought 
well forward is sometimes called by one of these 
names. 

Torpedo. This is a touring car having the 
body as small and low as possible while seating 





The Automobile Handbook 


101 


the number of passengers desired. The body is 
of a form that offers the least resistance to wind 
pressure and is called “stream line” in shape. 

Runabout. This is an open body seating two 
passengers, mounted on a comparatively small, 
light or low powered chassis for use in town and 
city travel and short country trips. 



Pig. 52 

Two-Passenger Roadster 

Roadster. This is also an open body, Fig. 52, 
seating two passengers, but mounted on a chassis 
whose size, weight and power fits it for heavy 
work and long distance touring. 

Speedster or Raceabout. This is a powerful 
chassis carrying small, light seats for two pas¬ 
sengers and designed for high speed work. The 
body is made as small and light as possible with 
“bucket” seats, floor, dash, gasoline and oil 
tanks, but no sides or doors, and in most cases 
without a top. 

Limousine. This is a type of body, Fig. 53, 
used mostly for town and city driving in bad 
weather or during the cold season. 












102 


The Automobile Handbook 


It seats four, five, six or seven persons in addi¬ 
tion to the driver. It has a permanent top and 
the rear compartment is entirely enclosed and 
has full doors. The driver’s compartment is di- 



Fig. 53 

Limousine Body 


vided from the rear by a partition and this com¬ 
partment is only partly enclosed. 

Berline or Berlin. This type is exactly like 
the limousine except that the driver’s compart¬ 
ment is fully enclosed and has full doors. 

Sedan. This body is like the Berline, that is 
to say, fully enclosed, but there is no partition 
between the driver’s and rear compartment. 

Landaulet or Landau. This is a limousine 
which has the rear half of the passenger com¬ 
partment closed with a top that is rigid when 
raised but that lets down like those tops of closed 
carriages in common use. 









The Automobile Handbook 


103 


Town Car. This type has the rear compart¬ 
ment entirely enclosed with full doors, and seats 
four or five persons in this part of the car. The 
driver’s compartment is open, the same as in a 
touring car. The driver may be protected by a 
small canopy extending forward from the en¬ 
closed portion. 


r* ■ ' 



Fig. 54 
Coupe 

Coupe. This type of body, Fig. 54, is entirely 
enclosed and has full doors. It may seat two, 
three or four passengers in the enclosed part, 
the driver being one of these. It is mounted on 
a roadster chassis and bears the same relation to 
the roadster that the Sedan bears to the touring 
car. 

Convertible Coupe or Sedan. These bodies 
are built in such a way that they give exactly 
the same appearance as a regular Coupe or Sedan 
from either the outside or inside. The upper 









104 


The Automobile Handbook 


portion is removable so that the Coupe or Sedan 
is converted into a roadster or touring car, de¬ 
pending on the arrangement and number of 
passengers carried. 

Cabriolet or Couplet. A convertible coupe 
may be called by either one of these names, both 
meaning the same thing. 

Taxicab. A car used as a public vehicle and 
being for hire according to certain designated 
rates of fare is called a taxicab. It is fitted with 
a taximeter” which records the distance trav¬ 
eled and the time spent in waiting, and automat- 
ally computes and indicates the fare to be paid. 

Taxicabs may be made from limousines, lan- 
daulets or town cars, the landaulet being the 
type most generally used. 

Commercial Car Bodies. These types include 
those used for carrying merchandise and also 
those used for carrying passengers as a business. 
Commercial car bodies may be designated accord¬ 
ing to the type of construction, the class of work 
to be handled or the weight to be carried. 

Truck Bodies. These include the express, 
platform, stake and panel types, and also many 
special designs. Truck bodies are usually made 
from designs prepared for each individual job 
and according to the customer’s requirements, 
except in the lower priced cars. 

Passenger Bodies. These include taxicabs, 
sight seeing cars, carrying from eight to twenty 
pei sons, and closed bodies suitable for carrying 
passengers and baggage in interurban work. 


BRAKES 


The Automobile Handbook 105 



Brakes. A brake is a mechanism which is 
a necessarv uart of the machinery of an auto- 
mobile and enables the operator by exerting a 
slight amount of force on a lever to reduce the 










































106 


The Automobile Handbook 


momentum of the moving ear. Brakes used on 
automobiles may be divided into three classes: 
Hub or rear wheel brakes, transmission and 
differential gear brakes. Brakes have also been 
applied to the tires of tbe rear wheels, but 
have proved unsatisfactory and have been aban¬ 
doned. The forms of brakes in use are single, 
or double-acting, foot or hand operated, and of 
the band, block or expanding ring types. 

Figure 55, at A, B and C, shows three forms 
of the simplest type of single-acting band-brake. 
This type of brake can only be operated success¬ 
fully with the brake wheel running in one 
direction only, which is indicated by the arrows 
in the drawing. If the brakes be operated in 
the reverse direction to that indicated by the 
arrows the result will be to jerk the lever or 
pedal out of the control of the operator of the 
car. 

The three forms of band-brakes shown at A, 
B and C are all of the same principle, the differ¬ 
ence being in the location of the fixed end of 
the brake-band and the shape of the operating 
lever. Type D is a form of double acting block- 
brake, which is designed with a view to elimi¬ 
nate any strain or side thrust upon the shaft of 
the brake wheel which may be caused by the 
braking action of the device. Types E, G and 
H are three types of double acting band-brakes, 
in which the brake may be applied with the 
brake wheel running in either direction. 

Type F is a form of double acting block-brake, 


The Automobile Handbook 


107 


in which the right hand ends of the brake-shoe 
arms are pivoted to stationary supports, and 
the left hand ends connected together by means 
of a link and bell-crank lever as shown in the 
drawing. 



B RAKES _ 

Fig. 56 

In Figure 56 a form of double acting block- 
brake I is shown, which is extremely powerful 
on account of its peculiar construction, in that 
is has a double leverage upon the brake wheel, 
which may be readily seen by reference to the 
drawing. Types J and K are of the form known 




































108 The Automobile Handbook 

as internal brakes and of the expanding ring 
type, the brakes operating upon the inner sur¬ 
face or periphery of the brake wheel, instead 
of the outside. They are known as hub brakes, 
being usually attached to the hubs of the rear 
wheels of the car. Type L shows a form of 
block-brake in which the pivoted brake arms 
are drawn together by the eccentric located on 
the brake lever shaft. When the lever is re- 



Fig. 57 


leased the brake-shoe arms are forced apart by 
the action of the coil spring between the upper 
ends of the arms. 

Expanding Brake. In the internally expand¬ 
ing brake, Figure 57, a hollow metal drum or 
pulley D is carried upon some continuously 
revolving portion of the car mechanism, and 
within this drum are supported two metallic 
shoes B B, which conform in shape to the inside 










The Automobile Handbook 


109 


surface of the drum by means of a spring, S S. 
The shoes are capable of being strongly pressed 
against the revolving inner surface of the drum 
by means of a cam or toggle arrangement, T, 
operated through a wire rope or metal rod, R, 
from the operator’s lever or pedal. It is im¬ 
portant that brakes of both these types should 
have their bands or shoes so arranged that an 
equal frictional effect is produced upon their 
drums for a given force applied by the operator, 



Fig. 58 

Expanding Brake 


whether the vehicle is running forward or back¬ 
ward. A brake so arranged is said to be double 
acting. 

Brake Linings. For expanding brakes, metal 
shoes have become standard, owing to the prac¬ 
ticability of maintaining proper lubrication be- 
tween the frictional surfaces. In external 
brakes the metal band is provided with some 
form of nonmetallic lining that forms the brak¬ 
ing surface applied to the drum. The reason 













110 . The Automobile Handbook 


for this is that it is practically impossible to 
properly lubricate an external brake. Various 
kinds of material, viz., leather fabric, asbestos, 
vulcanized fibre and camel’s hair belting, are 
used for lining external brake bands. A ma¬ 
terial which is used for this purpose must have 
great resisting powers, a constant co-efficient 
of friction, even in the presence of oil and 
water, and it must have the ability to resist 
the influence of heat due to the brake’s action. 
In piactice it has been found that leather lined 
brakes burn out, and fibre linings become brittle 
and cannot be depended upon, so that inorganic 
materials, which cannot be carbonized, such as 
asbestos fibre, are widely used. Asbestos fibre 
may be readily woven into a fabric which an¬ 
swers this requirement; but when used by itself 
its strength is not sufficient. "When, however, 
it is woven over a metal wire gauze foundation 
it appears to have the necessary stability to 
withstand very severe service, and this is the 
method employed in manufacturing the incom¬ 
bustible brake linings which are being used. 

Cork is the bark of the cork tree, and is the 
lightest known solid. Its weight is one-eleventh 
of aluminum, and one-thirtieth of cast-iron. It 
has a very high co-efficient of friction, and is 
not affected by many of the conditions which 
seriously impair the efficiency of other sub¬ 
stances. 

Cork possesses qualities which distinguish it 
from all other solids, namely, its power of alter- 


The Automobile Handbook 


111 


ing its volume to a very marked degree in con¬ 
sequence of a change of pressure. It consists, 
practically of an aggregation of minute air ves¬ 
sels, having thin, water-tight, and very strong 
walls, hence, if compressed, the resistance to 
compression rises in a manner more like the re¬ 
sistance of a gas, for instance, than to that of 
an elastic solid, such as a spring. The elasticity 
of cork has a wide range and is very persistent. 
It is this elasticity which makes it valuable when 
used as an insert in a metal shoe. Cork is of 
rather a brittle nature, though extremely strong, 
and for that reason it cannot be used in the form 
of a lining or facing. The method of appli¬ 
cation is to insert corks in holes in the brake 
provided for the purpose. Cork is not particu¬ 
larly affected by heat or oil, and will largely in¬ 
crease the efficiency in any application to a 
brake or clutch. 

Where metal-to-metal surfaces, with or with¬ 
out cork inserts, are used, the surfaces are usu¬ 
ally of different materials. The most common 
material for drums in all cases is steel, but that 
of shoes is either malleable cast iron, brass or a 
bronze. Different metals make a better wear¬ 
ing surface, and some combinations will have a 
higher degree of friction adhesion than others. 

In the selection of material for brake linings, 
the co-efficient of friction is an important factor 
to be considered. Table 7 gives the relative 
values existing in combinations of different 
materials. 




112 


The Automobile Handbook 


TABLE 7. 


Co-efficient 

Material— of friction 

Metal to Wood_'. 0.25 to 0.50 

Metal to Fibre .—.0.27 to 0.60 

Metal to Leather . 0.30 to 0.60 

Metal to Metal . 0.15 to 0.30 

Metal to Cork. 0.36 to 0.65 


Equalizers. In connection with all brakes 
which are nsecl in pairs, some method is used to 
equalize the pressure of the brake handle or foot 
pedal so that the same pressure will be applied 



to both brakes. If the power is not equally ap¬ 
plied to each brake, side slip or ‘‘skidding” will 
result. 

The different methods of equalizing brakes are 
shown in Figs. 59, 60, 61 and 62, the majority of 
cars using what is known as the floating lever 
type, the cable arrangement being used only on 
several makes of cars. The floating lever type 







































The Automobile Handbook 113 

✓ 

of equalizer is illustrated in Fig. 59. L is the 
floating lever, connected at its central point to 
the brake lever, or pedal by means of rod R. 
The ends of lever L are connected to the brakes 
B, B, by means of the brake rods C and D. 
When rod R is drawn forward, lever L draws 
rods C and D forward thus giving an equal pres¬ 
sure on the hub brakes. 

Fig. 60 shows another type of floating lever 
equalizer. Shaft S connects to the brakes by 



means of rocker arms located just outside the 
frame. Two rocker arms, C and D are con¬ 
nected to shaft S, and to the equalizing lever L 
by means of rods E and F. In some cases the 
equalizing lever is located outside of the frame. 
It then takes the form shown in Fig. 61, in 
which L is the lever that equalizes the pressure 
on both brakes connected to shaft S. Fig. 62 
shows the arrangement of the cord equalizer. 
Shaft S is connected to the two brakes, one at 




















114 


The Automobile Handbook 


«ach end, and it has two rockers, or cranks E 
and F attached to it. Parallel to S is another 
shaft C, which carries a grooved roller R. A 
cable is connected to crank E, carried over R, 
and then passing back, is connected to crank F. 
When R is moved in the direction of the arrow, 
by the brake lever, the cord distributes the ten¬ 
sion between E and F, and as a consequence the 
brake also. This type is much cheaper than 
the others, but it requires more care and atten- 














































The Automobile Handbook 


115 


Brazing. Many workmen labor under the im¬ 
pression that a brazing job cannot be done un¬ 
less the parts are a loose fit, in order, as they 
say, to allow the brazing material to enter and 
form a bond. The result is, when they do the 
work, the parts are a very loose fit, with accen¬ 
tuated shearing tendencies in the section of the 
bra zing material, and if the brazing happens to 
be poorly done, the result is anything but good, 
since, in the absence of brazing, there is not 

even a good mechanical bond. 

A good mechanical bond is possible to procure 
without, in any way, interfering with the braz¬ 
ing process, since the parts, if they are wel 
fluxed, will take a coat of brazing material, even 
when the recess is but a thousandth or two. In 
brazing, if the work is to be up to a sufficient 
standard to use in steering gear, it is necessary 
to clean and brighten the surfaces in a most 
thorough manner. This will best follow by me¬ 
chanical scraping rather than by dipping m 
some corroding material. Dipping may 3e o 
value as a preliminary, but a file, and scraper, 
in the hands of a man of competence, will go a 

long ways toward success. . 

When the parts are well brightened, and the 

grease is thoroughly removed, by the use of 
soda water, benzine, or equally good solvents 
it remains to flux the parts with borax, and 
then apply the heat, either by a forge or from a 
special form of brazing torch which uses gaso¬ 
line kerosene, or other fuel oil, to pio 
duce the necessary heat. All forms of burn- 



116 


The Automobile Handbook 


ers have means of adjusting the flame, and 
two or more burners are usually placed 
in such position that their flames strike 
the work. Torches are similar to the 
Bunsen burner; if fire brick, or clay, is used to 
build up around the parts, the heating process 
wflll be attended with less‘difficulty, and the work 
will be better at the finish. A rather hard braz¬ 
ing material may be used. This may be pur¬ 
chased ready for use, and there is no reason at 
all why a motorist of even slight skill cannot 
make a good job of brazing. 

Brazing Methods. The brazing flame must 
be so adjusted that no soot is deposited on the 
work and care should be exercised that no for¬ 
eign matter of any kind enters between the sur¬ 
faces to be joined. 

But a single tool is required in brazing, this 
being a spatula formed by flattening one end 
of a steel rod which is from one-quarter to 
three-eighths inch in diameter. This spatula is 
used for placing the spelter, or brazing metal, 
on the work and for handling the flux. 

Spelter, the metal used to make the joint, is. 
variously composed of alloys containing copper, 
zinc, tin and antimony. Hard spelter, melting 
at about 1650° Fahrenheit is used with cast or 
malleable iron and with steel. A metal suitable 
for joining copper contains nearly equal parts 
of copper and zinc and melts at about 1400°. 
For fastening brass to iron and copper and for 
handling large pieces of brass to brass, a still 


The Automobile Handbook 


117 


softer spelter is used, containing two-thirds tin 

and one-third antimony. 

The most generally nsed flux is pure calcinec 
borax powder, this powder, mixed with about 
15% of powdered sal ammoniac, making a satis¬ 
factory agent. 

The surfaces to be brazed are thoroug 1 } 
cleaned as already described and the parts are 
then placed in the relation to each other that, 
they are to finally occupy. The work as then 
placed so that the melted spelter and flux wi 
flow down into the joint and the work is braced 
or clamped in this position. It is advisable to 
place fire brick around the work to protect 1 
from cooling draughts of air. The work is then 
well covered with flux, which is made into a 
paste with water, and the heat is applied until 
the flux boils and runs over the smfaces. 
Spelter is then placed in such a position that it 
will run into the joint and the heat is continued 
or increased until the spelter flows between the 
surfaces of the joint. The flame should surround 
the work so that air is excluded as far as pos 

^Care should be exercised to avoid softening 
the metal in the work by too much heat and 
when brazing two different metals together the 
flame should be directed only on the onemel ting 
at the higher temperature, allowing the other 
metaT to receive its heat from the one m the 

^As 6 ' soon as the spelter melts and flows, the 



118 


The Automobile Handbook 


heat should be removed. Should the spelter 
foim into small globules instead of flowing, tap¬ 
ping the work will usually overcome the diffi¬ 
culty . If tapping does not produce the desired 
result, more flux, in dry form, may be added. 

Carbon Deposit, Removal of. The outfit 
consists of a high pressure cylinder of oxygen 
gas with a reducing valve, pressure gauge, 
length of rubber hose, a shut off valve and a tube 
of flexible copper for introduction into the com¬ 
bustion space of the cylinders. 

The shut off valve from the gasoline tank on 
the car should be closed and the engine run 
until it stops because of the exhaustion of the 

supply of gasoline in the lines and carburetor 
float bowl. 

If the engine has “T” or “L” head cylinders, 
one of the valve caps should be removed. If 
the cylinders have overhead valves, remove the 
spark plug. In any case, should any spark 
plug then remain in the cylinder, it should be 
removed and replaced, during the operation, 
with an old one. 

Having selected the cylinder to be cleaned 
first, raise its piston to the top center following 
the compression stroke so that both valves are 
tightly closed. In case the carbon has been 
burned hard the interior of the combustion 
space should then be wiped with a swab wet 

with kerosene until all of the carbon has been 
moistened. 

The valve on the high pressure oxygen cylin- 



The Automobile Handbook 


119 1 


der should then be opened, the shut off valve on 
the torch should also be opened, and the reduc¬ 
ing valve handle screwed in until the low pres¬ 
sure gauge shows from two to three pounds. 
Then close the shut off cock and insert the end 
of the flexible tube into the cylinder. 

Now open the shut off valve and introduce a 
lighted match or taper into the cylinder until 
the carbon starts to burn. Manipulate the end 
of the tube inside of the cylinder until all sur¬ 
faces have been reached, taking special care 
with the valve pockets and other recesses. When 
the flame will no longer continue, despite move¬ 
ment of the tube, the burning has been com 

P In case the engine or dust pan is dirty or oily 
it will be well to protect the opening into the 
cylinder by means of sheets of asbestos or of 
thin sheet metal because there will probab y 
be a considerable display of sparks which would 
ignite any exposed fuel or dirt which is oil 
soaked. It is also well to have a reliable fire 
extinguisher convenient to the hand o 
operator during the operation.. 

Having completed the burning, the combus¬ 
tion space should be blown out with a blast o 
air from a compressor or from a hand bellow , 
thus removing the reminder of fine, dry carb 

Rubricating oil is charged with the crime of 
depositing carbon on the surfaces of the com- 





120 


The Automobile Handbook 


bustion chamber, and this carbon in turn causes 
bucking, ’ ’ and pre-ignition. It probably is true 
that inferior cylinder lubricating oil will de¬ 
posit carbon, to some extent, but the main trou¬ 
ble is from the gasoline which will not vaporize 
until it is allowed to contact with the hot cyl¬ 
inder walls, and this process of reducing the 
gasoline to vapor is bound to lead to a carbon 
deposit for the same reason that wood is 
coked ’ if it is heated to a temperature of 
about 650 deg. C., provided the amount of air 
present is less than that which would cause 
complete combustion/ 

Piston Head Scraper. In most engines the 
piston heads can be scraped clean of carbon 
without removing the pistons from the cylinders, 
by means of specially formed scrapers intro¬ 
duced through the opening over the valves, or 
through the spark plug holes when the latter 
aie horizontal. I he form and size of scraper 
will depend on the particular engine, but al¬ 
most any suitable form may be made from 5-16- 
inch steel tubing about 12 inches long hav¬ 
ing the ends hammered flat, and turned over at 
light angles in a vise. The ends are then 
filed straight, and sharp, and the shank of the 
scraper may be bent to right or left, if neces- 
sar y, oi* left straight. Frequently two scrapers 
will be needed in order to use both right and 
left hand bends. The advantage of tubing for 

this purpose is that no blacksmith work is nec¬ 
essary. 


The Automobile Handbook 


121 


Carburetors, Principles of. Internal combus¬ 
tion engines used for the propulsion of motor 
ears use gasoline for fuel in almost all cases. 
Experimenting is now going on in the endeavoi 
to use kerosene or alcohol, and in some cases 
even lower grades of fuel. Gasoline and keio- 
sene are secured by heating crude petroleum 
until vapor is given off, and this vapor is passed 
through pipes that are kept cool enough to con¬ 
dense the vapor into a liquid. Alcohol is se¬ 
cured by the distillation of fermented vege¬ 
table matter, and may be secured in almost 
any part of the country if suitable means for 
distillation were to be developed. 

Before the gasoline is ready to burn in the 
engine cylinders, it must be turned into a gas 
or vapor. If gasoline stands exposed to the air 
it will vaporize at a comparatively slow rate, 
but if ejected from a small opening in a fine 
stream it will turn to vapor and mix with air 
much more rapidly. It is always necessary to 
mix the gasoline vapor with air in certain pro¬ 
portions to make a combustible mixture. The 
instrument that turns the gasoline into a gas 
and then mixes the gas with air is called the 
carburetor and the process is called carbureting. 

Many forms of carburetors have been made 
and used, but all instruments now fitted are of 
the type known as automatic float feed. e 
spray nozzle is the small opening inside of the 
carburetor through which the liquid gasoline 
is drawn when it is to be made into a vapor. 



122 


The Automobile Handbook 


The nozzle opening is placed in a tube through 
which the air must pass on its way to the engine 
cylinders. See Fig. 63. One end of this tube 
is open to the outside air and the other end 
attaches to the piping that goes to the engine 
cylinders. The end open to the air is called 
the primary air intake. 



Fig. 63 

Float-Feed Carburetor Mixing Chamber and Air 
Vahre. A, Spray Nozzle. B, Adjusting Needle 
Vaive. C, Primary Air Intake. D, Auxiliary Air 
Valve. E, Air Valve Spring. F, Throttle Valve. 


When the piston travels away from the cylin¬ 
der head on the inlet stroke, the inlet valve 
opens and a cylinder full of mixture is drawn 
from the carburetor. The air to make the mix- 














The Automobile Handbook 


12a 


ture is drawn through the carburetor primary 
air intake and must pass by the nozzle opening. 
The gasoline is maintained at a height slightly 
below the nozzle opening, and the suction, or 
partial vacuum, of the incoming air causes 
some of the gasoline to be drawn out of the 
nozzle so that its spray mixes with the air. 
This is the principle on which all modern car¬ 
buretors operate, but certain added features 
are necessary to compensate for the different 
conditions obtaining under different rates of 
car speed and engine load. 

The first difficulty that would be encountered 
with the simple form of carburetor just de¬ 
scribed would be that of a falling gasoline 
level in the nozzle as the fuel was drawn into 
the engine. This would finally result in a fail¬ 
ure of the fuel supply and stoppage of the 
engine. In actual practice, the gasoline from 
the car's tank does not pass directly into the 
nozzle, but goes first into a small tank on the 
carburetor, which tank is called the float cham¬ 
ber. Of the two openings in this small tank, 
one goes to the gasoline supply and the other 
communicates with the carburetor nozzle. In¬ 
side of the float chamber is a piece of cork cov¬ 
ered with shellac or else a hollow metal cylin¬ 
der, either of which will float on the surface of 
whatever gasoline may be in the chamber. At 
the opening of the pipe that comes into the 
float chamber from the gasoline tank is a small 
valve, Fig. 64, operated by connections at- 



124 


The Automobile Handbook 


tached to the float itself. When the float is 
low down in the chamber this valve is open; 
hat as the float rises on the surface of the liquid 
coming from the tank, it finally reaches a height 



E 

Fig. 64 

Carburetor Float Valve Mechanism. A, Float. B, 
Float Lever Pivot. C, Float Lever. D, Float 
Valve. E, Gasoline Inlet. 

at which the valve is closed, and it will there¬ 
fore be seen that the level of the liquid cannot 
rise above the point determined by the position 
of the float when the valve closes. When gaso¬ 
line is drawn from the float chamber, through 
the nozzle, the float falls with the fuel level 
until the valve is again opened, and by this 
repeated action the level is maintained constant. 

Other parts of the carburetor, such as the 
auxiliary air valve, are described in the follow¬ 
ing pages and the construction and adjustment 
of the well known makes are taken up. 


















The Automobile Handbook 


125 


Almost any carburetor will give a reasonably 
good mixture through a limited range of action. 
Frequently, however, this range is found insuf¬ 
ficient for a particular engine. If right for low 
speeds, it is wrong for high speeds, and vice 

versa. 

The theory of carburetor action as regards 
the behavior of the gasoline jet under different 
air velocities is still only partially understood, 
and has been the subject of a great deal of 
more or less blind theorizing, based in many 
cases on wholly inadequate data. 

A non-automatic spraying carburetor (i. e., a 
simple nozzle in an air tube) makes no mixture 
at all till the velocity of the air stream reaches 
a certain minimum. Beyond this point, the 
richness increases with the speed. Dilution 
from the auxiliary valve is therefore required 
only when the richness of the mixture exceeds 
the normal. At this point it should be remem¬ 
bered that, so far as the spray is concerned, 
there is no difference between a wide open throt¬ 
tle at slow engine speed (as for instance, up 
hill) and reduced throttle with high engine 
speed. The spraying action is concerned only 
with the velocity of the air past the nozzle be¬ 
fore the throttle is reached. 

Almost every carburetor is provided with the 
needle valve controlling the spray orifice. With 
this provision it is very easy to determine 
whether or not the carburetor is doing as well 
as it should at either low or high speed. For 



126 The Automobile Handbook 

example, suppose we start with an adjust¬ 
ment known to be satisfactory for medium, 
speeds. If the low speed performance is under 
suspicion, it is only necessary to increase the 
needle valve opening slightly to ascertain 
whether starting is thereby made easier, and a 
walking pace more smoothly maintained. If 
overheating results, reducing the needle open¬ 
ing will probably cure it. Similarly slight 
changes in the needle opening, without chang¬ 
ing any other adjustment, will determine 
whether or not the mixture is improved by 
less, or more gasoline at high speed. When the 
carburetor is set for a medium speed, if the mix¬ 
ture is weak at low speeds, and rich at high 
speeds, more air should be admitted, but if the 
mixture is rich at low speeds, and weak at 
high, less air should be admitted. Much de¬ 
pends upon the spring. 

« 

It is a characteristic of all springs that their 
flexure is in direct proportion to the load im¬ 
posed, up to the elastic limit of the spring. 

The Float Feed Carburetor, always con¬ 
sists of two principal parts: a gasoline recepta¬ 
cle which contains a hollow metal or a cork 
float, suitably arranged to control the supply of 
•gasoline from the tank or reservoir, and a tube 
or pipe in which is located a jet or nozzle in 
communication with the gasoline receptacle. 
This tube or pipe is called the mixing chamber. 
The gasoline level is maintained about one-six¬ 
teenth of an inch below the opening in the jet 


The Automobile Handbook 


127 


in the mixing chamber. The inductive action 
of the motor-piston creates a partial vacuum in 
the pipe leading from the mixing chamber of 
the carbureter to the motor, thereby causing 
the gasoline to flow from the jet and mixing 
with the air supply, to be drawn into the cylin¬ 
der of the motor in the form of an explosive 
mixture. 

Spraying Carburetors. In this type of car¬ 
buretor the quantity of gasoline delivered is 
not proportional to the volume of air delivery 
at different rates of flow. This difficulty has, 
however, been met by providing a supplemen¬ 
tary air inlet to the carbureter, which may be 
regulated by the driver at will. 

Another method of correcting the variations 
in the proportions consists in providing a 
second spray nozzle. In the majority of cases 
in which multiple nozzle carburetors are used, 
there are two nozzles, practically two carbure¬ 
ters, a small one for idle running, and slow 
speeds, and a larger one for heavy work. In 
some instances, three, and even four nozzles are 
used. 

In case an extra gasoline nozzle is used it is 
generally so placed that the suction has little 
or no effect upon it until a sufficient engine 
speed has been attained to cause the auxiliary 
air valve to open. The additional nozzle is 
placed in the stream of air from this auxiliary 
valve and the incoming air picks up a sufficient 
quantity of fuel to maintain the correct propor- 



128 


The Automobile Handbook 


tions of the mixture. This and other variations 
appear in the following pages. 

Auxiliary Air-Valve. It has been deter¬ 
mined from the result of experiments that to 
get the maximum power at any speed from a 
gasoline motor equipped with a float-feed car¬ 
buretor, the jet of the carburetor must have a 
larger opening for low speeds than for high 
speeds. As this practice would require a very 
delicate adjustment it consequently becomes 
almost impracticable, because necessitating a 
constantly varying regulation for each frac¬ 
tional variation of speed of the motor. The 
difficulty may be obviated by the use of an aux¬ 
iliary air-valve, located in the induction-pipe 
close to the inlet-valve of the motor. 

The jet of the carburetor is set for the maxi¬ 
mum quantity of gasoline at the slowest speed 
of the motor, and as the speed is increased the 
auxiliary air-valve comes into action and in¬ 
creases the supply of air passing through the car¬ 
bureter, thereby reducing the suction or partial 
vacuum at this point, and maintaining a con¬ 
stant quality of mixture at all times. 

The auxiliary air valve has been attached to a 
dash pot construction in many makes of modern 
carburetors. The dash pot may operate with 
air or with gasoline for its fluid, but in either 
case the purpose is to prevent sudden opening 
and closing of the valve or “fluttering.” Such' 
fluctuation is a cause of noise and also tends 
to destroy the proportions of the mixture. 



The Automobile Handbook 


129 


Frequently it is observed that the intake to 
the carburetor is so restricted that noise issues, 
and a little further investigation in such cases 
will disclose, in all probability, that wire-draw¬ 
ing is one of the ills. It is not alone the noise 
that is objectionable in such cases; the power 
of the motor will be less, due to the restriction 
which has the effect of reducing the weight of 
mixture that enters into the cylinders, and the 
power of a motor is undoubtedly proportional 
to the weight of mixture that enters the cylin¬ 
ders, assuming, of course, that the same is in 
acceptable form, and that it is completely, 
burned. True, there must be a depression in 
the carburetor in order that there will be a dif¬ 
ference in pressure, so that gasoline will be 
sucked into the train of air; equally true, it is 
of the greatest importance to have the depres¬ 
sion as low as possible in order that the power 
of the motor will be a maximum. If the depres¬ 
sion is but slight, provided the carburetor is 
properly designed, the amount of fuel entrained 
will be adequate for the purpose. If, on the 
other hand, the depression is very large and 
holds considerable fuel, it will soon be found to 

be wasteful of the liquid. 

"With the low grades of fuel now in use, wire¬ 
drawing is very harmful, inasmuch as it tends 
to separate the gasoline from the air and causes 
the gasoline vapor to again become a liquid and 
deposit on the tubing walls. 



130 


The Automobile Handbook 


Effect of Cold on Gasoline. The tempera¬ 
ture has a very marked effect on the rapidity 
with which gasoline vaporizes, and in cold 
weather it is necessary to supply heat to the 
carburetor. 

The carburetor should preferably be jacket¬ 
ed, and it may be warmed either from the circu¬ 
lating water, or by taking a small quantity of 
the hot gases from the exhaust pipe. If water is 
used it should be taken from a point just be¬ 
yond the discharge of the pump, and should be 
delivered to the return pipe from the engine 
jacket to the radiator. 

Whether exhaust gases or water is used, the 
flow should be regulated by a cock, otherwise 
too much heat will be received in warm weather. 
When the carburetor is cold, the engine may be 
started by pouring warm water over it, care be¬ 
ing taken not to let any portion of the water 
get into the gasoline through any aperture in 
the top. Another method of warming up the 
carbureter is to wring cloths out of hot water, 
and wrap them around it. 

While it is not generally realized, the flow of 
gasoline through the nozzle is greatly influenced 
by the temperature of the liquid. Gasoline at 
very low temperatures, such as freezing, and 
slightly above, is reduced as much as 30% in 
volume of flow below the point reached when the 
liquid itself is warmed to between 65° and 80° 
Fahrenheit. This forms one more reason for 
jacket heating on all carburetors. 


The Automobile Handbook 


131 


Carburetor Inspection. The float valve of 
the carburetor should be tested for leaks by 
opening the valve between it and the tank and 
looking for gasoline drip. If gasoline escapes, 
it may simply be because the float ist set too 
high, so that it does not close the needle valve 
before gasoline issues from the spray nozzle. 
Or, it may be that the valve itself leaks. 

At this stage, it is well to assume that the 
float is properly adjusted, and to begin by shut¬ 
ting off the main gasoline valve, and then un¬ 
screwing the washout plug below the needle 
valve. It may be found that dirt, waste, or a 
splinter of wood has got past the strainer, 
through which, presumably, the gasoline passes 
on its way to the float, and is lodged in the 
needle-valve opening. It may be of advantage 
to open the top of the float chamber, which can 
usually be done without disturbing other parts, 
and take out the float and needle valve. A lit¬ 
tle gasoline washed down through the needle- 
valve orifice will then generally carry away any 
dirt that may have clung to the valve when the 
plug was unscrewed. If the gasoline still drips 
when the parts are reassembled, the mixing 
chamber should be opened and the top of the 
spray nozzle examined to see if gasoline is es¬ 
caping from it. An electric light should be 
used in making an examination of the carbu¬ 
reter, as, with any other illuminant, a fire might 
be started. The portable electric flashlights 
answer the purpose very well. 




132 


The Automobile Handbook 


Occasionally a carburetor is found to be too 
large for the engine, or to have too large a 
spray orifice. The advice has been given in 
such a case to reduce the size of the spray ori¬ 
fice by lightly pening the top of it with a ham¬ 
mer. This is counsel of doubtful value, even 
if the hole be afterward reamed true, since it is 
manifest that the burr formed in the top of the 
orifice cannot possibly be deep enough to be at 
all regular in its form. It will almost inevita¬ 
bly throw a jet slantwise, instead of straight, 
and this je + failing to strike the main part of 
the air stream will be only partly atomized, 
with resulting misfiring and general bad be¬ 
havior, especially at low speeds. If a new noz¬ 
zle of smaller size cannot be substituted, the 
best thing to do in case there is no needle valve 
to adjust the flow of gasoline to the jet is prob¬ 
ably, to warm the ingoing air as much as possi¬ 
ble, in order to make evaporation by tempera¬ 
ture take the place of atomizing due to the air’s 
velocitv. 

Holly Carburetor, Model H. This carbure¬ 
tor is shown in Fig. 65. Before the fuel enters 
the float chamber it passes a strainer disk A 
which removes all foreign matter that might in¬ 
terfere with the seating of the float valve B 
under the action of the cork float and its lever 
C. Fuel passes from the float chamber, D, into 
the nozzle well E, through a passage F, drilled 
through the wall separating them. From the 


The Automobile Handbook 


133 


nozzle well the fuel enters the nozzle proper, G-, 
through the hole H, and then rises past the 
needle valve I, to a level in its cup-shaped upper 
end, which just submerges the lower end of a 
small tube, J, which has its outlet at the edge of 
the throttle disk. 



Fig. 65 


Holly Carburetor, Model “H” 

Cranking the engine, with the throttle kept 
nearly closed, causes a very energetic flow of air 
through the tube J and its calibrated throttling 
plug K, but the lower' end of this tube is sub¬ 
merged in fuel, with the engine at rest. There- 



























































































134 The Automobile Handbook 

fore, the act of cranking automatically primes 
the motor. With the motor turning over, under 
its own power, flow through the tube J takes 
place at very high velocity, thus causing the fuel 
entering the tube with the air to be thoroughly 
atomized upon its exit from the small opening 
at the throttle edge. This tube is called the 

low speed tube” because, for starting and idle 
running, all of the fuel and most of the air in 
the fuel mixture are taken through it. 

As the throttle opening is increased beyond 
that needed by idling of the motor, a consider¬ 
able volume of air is caused to move through the 
passage bounded by the conical walls L of the 
so-called strangling tube. In its passage into 
the strangling tube, the air is made to assume an 
annular, converging-stream form, so that the 
point in its flow at which it attains its highest 
velocity is in the immediate neighborhood of the 
upper end of the “standpipe” M, set on to the 
body of the nozzle piece G. The velocity of ajr 
flow being highest at the upper, or outlet, end of 
the standpipe, the pressure in the air stream 
is lowest at the same point. For this reason 
there is a pressure difference between the top 
and bottom openings of the pipe M, thus causing 
air to flow through it from bottom to top, the air 
passing downward through the series of open¬ 
ings N in the standpipe supporting-bridge and 
then up through the standpipe. 

With a very small throttle opening, the action 
through the standpipe keeps the nozzle thor- 


The Automobile Handbook 


135 


oughly cleaned out, the fuel passing directly 
from the needle opening into the entrance of the 
standpipe. To secure the utmost atomization 
of the fuel, the passage through the standpipe is 
given aspirator form, which further increases 
the velocity of the flow through it, and insures 
the greatest possible mixture of the fuel with the 
air. A further point is that the atomized dis¬ 
charge of the standpipe enters the air stream at 
a point at which the latter attains its highest 
velocity and lowest pressure. 



There is but one adjustment, the needle valve 
I. The effect of a change in its setting is mani¬ 
fest equally over the whole range of the motor. 

Holly Carburetor, Model G. This design is 
especially for Ford cars. Its method of opera- 


































136 


The Automobile Handbook 


tion is identical with that of the Model H, its 
chief differences as compared with the other 
model being structural ones, giving a horizontal 
instead of a vertical outlet, a needle valve con¬ 
trolled x from above, and a general condensation 
of the design to secure compactness. 

Fuel enters the carburetor, shown in Fig. 66, 
by way of a float mechanism in which a hinged 
ring float, in rising with the fuel, raises the float 
valve into contact with its seat. The seat is a 
removable piece and the float valve is provided 
with a tip of hard material. 

From the float chamber the gasoline passes 
through the ports E to the nozzle orifice in 
which is located the pointed end of the needle 
F. It is noted that the ports E are well above 
the bottom of the float chamber, so that, even 
should water or other foreign matter enter the 
float chamber it would have to be present in a 
considerable quantity before it could interfere 
with the carburetor operation. 

A drain valve D is provided for the purpose 
of drawing off whatever sediment, or water, may 
accumulate in the float chamber. The float level 
is so set that the gasoline rises past the needle 
valve F and fills the cup G to submerge the 
lower end of the small tube H. Drilled passages 
in the casting communicate with the upper end 
of this tube with an outlet at the edge of the 
throttle disk. The tube and passage give the 
starting and idling actions, as described in con¬ 
nection with the Model H. 




The Automobile Handbook 137 

The strangling tube I gives the entering air 
stream an annular converging form, in which 
the lowest pressure and highest velocity occur 
immediately above the cup G; thus it is seen that 
the fuel issuing past the needle valve F is imme¬ 
diately picked up by the main air stream at the 
point of the latter’s highest velocity. 

The lever L operates the throttle in the mix¬ 
ture outlet, and a larger disk with its lever S is 
a spring-returned strangler valve in the air in¬ 
take, for facilitating starting in extremely cold 
weather. 


. \ 'i 

m ° 













138 


The Automobile Handbook 



6 ' 


Fisr. 67 


_ _ _ pKingston Carburetoi 
air valve instead of the employment of spring 

control dashpot, diaphragm or auxiliary air 
valve. The main air intake A communicates 
with the vertical mixing chamber B, in which 


Kingston Carburetor. The Kingston carbu¬ 
retor, Fig. 67, uses a ball type of auxiliary 

*7 » 


the sides C are beveled outward, giving a center 
tube effect, so that the air current converges 
above the nozzle N, as indicated by the arrows 
D marks the exit to the motor controlled by the 
butterfly throttle E. Auxiliary air enters 
through five circular openings G, arranged in 
a semi-circle in the floor of an extension H of 
the mixing chamber. Each of these five open-, 
ings consists of a bushing K threaded into the 


opening in the extension H, and having its top 
beveled to receive a five-eighths inch bell metal 
bronze ball I), which is retained in position by 
a threaded bushing M, fitting in the top of the 
extension H. It has a pair of downward project- 































The Automobile Handbook 


139 


ing hooks N for preventing the ball getting out 
of position, but not interfering with the ball 
rising vertically when forced to do so by the 
pull of the motor, at which time additional air 
is admitted. Two others of the five auxiliary 
entrances are shown at I and 0, all of the five 
containing balls of the same size and weight. 
The air entering through the openings guarded 
by these balls has an unrestricted passage into 
the mixing chamber and thence to the motor. 
Any ball is easily moved by unthreading the 
cap M, after which the ball can be lifted out. 

The gasoline enters the carburetor from 
the gasoline tank by way of the connec¬ 
tion J, which is guarded by the needle valve R, 
operated through the lever S, pivoted in the 
side of the casting and with its long arm bear¬ 
ing on the top of the cork float. The float is 
fitted with a metal bushing. Complete control 
of the nozzle N is through the needle valve Y, 
which, at the top of the carbureter, has a T- 
piece X, by which it can be raised or lowered, 
thereby regulating the flow of gasoline. A 
feature of the throttle connection T is the ser¬ 
rated lower face of its hub W, so that by loos¬ 
ening a lock nut Z, the handle T may be turned 
in any direction most convenient. The air in¬ 
take A consists of an L-shaped piece secured 
to the carbureter casting by a nut P, and in the 
base of this is a circle of openings F where cur¬ 
rents of air can enter, the object of these open¬ 
ings being that by priming the carburetor, and 



140 The Automobile Handbook 

overflowing; the open mouth of nozzle N the 
gasoline falls to the vicinity of the holes F, and 
the air entering through these openings will 
facilitate the breaking up of the gasoline, and 
thereby assist the starting of the motor. 



Rayfield Carburetor. The Rayfield carbure¬ 
tor has no direct adjustment for the nozzle 
opening such as would be provided by a screw 
needle valve, but to take the place of such an 
adjustment a type of lever mechanism is used 
that increases or decreases the gasoline supply 





































































The Automobile Handbook 


141 


according to the degree of throttle opening, and 
also provides means for adjusting the fuel flow 
for high or low speeds independently of each 
other. Adjustment is provided through two 
screws with milled heads, one of these serving to 
fix the position of the nozzle adjustment at low 
engine speeds or with a nearly closed throttle 
and the other one operating only when the throt¬ 
tle is more than half way open. The construc¬ 
tion of this instrument is clearly shown in Figs. 
69, 70 and 71, and the method of adjustment is 
described on the following pages. 

Model D, Fig. 69—Adjusting low speeds:— 
Close needle valve by turning low speed screw 
to the left until arm U slightly leaves contact 
with the cam. Then turn to the right one and 
one-half turns, open throttle one-quarter, prime 
carburetor and start motor. Close throttle until 
motor runs slowly without stopping. Turn low 
speed screw to the left one notch at a time until 
motor idles smoothly. If motor does not throttle 
low enough turn screw in stop arm to the left 
with a screw driver. Carburetor is now adjusted 
for low speed. 

Adjusting high speed:—Now open the throt¬ 
tle slowly until wide open. Should motor back¬ 
fire turn high speed adjusting screw to the right, 
a half turn at a time, until motor runs without 
a miss. Should motor not backfire turn high 
speed adjusting screw to the left until it does, 
then to the right until motor runs smoothly and 

powerfully. 



142 


The Automobile Handbook 


Do not use low speed adjustment to get a cor¬ 
rect mixture at high or intermediate speeds. 

Should motor backfire or mixture be too light 
at intermediate speeds (throttle about *4 open) 



Rayfield Carburetor, Model “D”. A, Float Cham¬ 
ber. B, Mixing Chamber. C, Flange. D, Throt¬ 
tle Lever. E, Gasoline Intake. . H, Gas Arm. J, 
Dash Adjustment. K, Air Valve. L, Needle 
Valve. M, Regulating Cam. P, Air Adjustment. 
R, Air Lock. S, Drain Plug. T, Priming Cap. 
U, Needle Arm. F, Water Connection. G, 
Priming Lever. N, Low Speed Adjustment. O, 
. High Speed Adjustment. V, Primary Air In¬ 
take. W, Cam Shaft. 

turn air valve adjustment P to the right a turn 
or two, thus increasing the spring tension and 
decreasing quantity of air slightly. 

Remember that it is best to use all the air that 
the motor will handle without being sluggish. 

Do not change the float level. It is correctly 
set at the factory. Always prime carburetor 














































The Automobile Handbook 


143 


well before starting motor. Pull steadily on 
primer string. Don’t jerk. 

Do not cut down the air supply, unless the 
gasoline adjustments fail to give you a powerful 
and fast mixture. 

If motor does not get the correct mixture at 
intermediate speed or high speed, do not try to 
remedy it through a low speed adjustment. Re¬ 
member, the low speed adjustment is to be ad¬ 
justed only when the motor is running idle. 

In starting motor, do not open throttle more 
than one-quarter. The motor will start more 
readily with the throttle slightly opened and it is 
harmful as well as useless to race the motor in 
starting. 

Before cranking motor pull dash button up. 
After motor has “warmed up” push dash button 
down to Running Position. 

In stopping motor pull up dash button, open 
throttle about % inch, and switch off ignition, 
thus leaving a sufficient volume of rich mixture 
in the cylinders, which assures easy starting 
when the motor is again used. 

Models G and L, Figs. 70 and 71, have no air 
valve adjustment and only two gasoline adjust¬ 
ments. 

Always adjust carburetor with dash control 
down. Low speed adjustment must be completed 
before adjusting “high.” 

Adjusting low speed:—With throttle closed, 
and dash control down, close nozzle needle by 
turning Low Speed adjustment to the left until 




144 


The Automobile Handbook 



HIGH-SPEED 

ADJUSTMENT 

TUR^ t O HK»MT FOR, . 
~~~—"—MORE OA5 


GASOLINE 

INTAKE 

COHNE.CTSON 


LOW 5PEED\5 | 

adjustment! 

TUftN TO WON T fORHORf OAi 1* 


Fig. 70 

Rayfield Carburetor, Model “G”. D, Throttle Arm. 
G, Priming Lever. H, Gasoline Arm. M, Regu¬ 
lating Cam. S, Drain Cock. U, Needle Valve 
Arm. X, Drain Cock. J, Gasoline Control Lock. 



Fig. 71—Rayfield Carburetor, Model “G v , Internal 

Construction 



































The Automobile Handbook 


145 


Block U slightly leaves contact with the cam M. 
Then turn to the right about three complete 
turns. Open throttle not more than one-quarter. 
Prime carburetor by pulling steadily a few. sec¬ 
onds on priming lever G. Start motor and allow 
it to run until warmed up. Then, with retarded 
spark, close throttle until motor runs slowly 
without stopping. Now, with motor thoroughly 
warm, make final low speed adjustment by turn¬ 
ing low speed screw to left until motor slows 
down, and then turn to the right a notch at a 
time until motor idles smoothly. 

If motor does not throttle low enough, turn 
stop arm screw A to the left until it runs at the 
lowest number of revolutions desired. 

Adjusting High Speed:—Advance spark 
about one-quarter. Open throttle rather quickly. 
Should motor backfire it indicates a lean mix¬ 
ture. Correct this by turning the high speed 
adjusting screw to the right about one notch at 
a time, until the throttle can be opened quickly 
without a backfiring. 

If ‘Goading’’ (choking) is experienced when 
running under heavy load with throttle wide 
open, it indicates too rich a mixture. This can 
be overcome by turning high speed adjustment 
to the left. 

Adjustment made for high speed will in no 
way affect low speed. Low speed adjustment 
must not be used to get a correct mixture at high 
speed. Both adjustments are positively locked. 

Starting:—Before starting motor when cold 



146 


The Automobile Handbook 


observe the following. Open throttle not more 
than one-qnarter. Enrich the mixture by pull¬ 
ing up dash control. Prime carburetor by pull¬ 
ing on priming lever G for a few seconds. 

When stopping motor, pull up dash control. 
Open throttle about one-quarter and switch off 
ignition. This leaves a rich mixture in the 
motor, which insures easy starting. 

Raising dash control enriches the mixture by 
lifting the nozzle needle. Control button should 
be down for running, except when a richer mix¬ 
ture is required. 

Pull button up full distance for starting. 

Adjustment of carburetor should always be 
made with dash control down and motor warm. 


The Automobile Handbook 


147 


Schebler Carburetors. This make of instru¬ 
ment has been built in a number of different 
models, the first one of which to be used in large 
numbers was the Model D. All of the important 
types of Schebler carburetors now in use are 
described and instructions given for their ad¬ 
justments on the following pages. 



Schebler 

Valve. 

Lever. 

Speed 


Fig. 72 

Carburetor, Model “L”. A, Auxiliary Air 
B, Gasoline Needle Valve. C, Priming 
D, Intermediate Speed Cam. E, High 
Cam. 


The Model L carburetor, Fig. 72, is a type of 
lift needle carburetor and is so designed that the 
amount of fuel entering the motor is automatic¬ 
ally controlled by means of a raised needle work¬ 
ing automatically with the throttle. The adjust¬ 
ment or control of gasoline in this instrument 



































148 


The Automobile Handbook 


can be adjusted for low, intermediate or high 
speed, each adjustment being independent and 
not affecting either of the other adjustments. 

In adjusting the carburetor, first make adjust¬ 
ment on the auxiliary air valve A so that it seats 
firmly but lightly; then close the needle valve by 
turning the adjustment screw B to the right 
until it stops. Do not use any pressure on this 
adjustment screw after it meets with resistance. 
Then turn it to the left from four to five com¬ 
plete turns and prime or flush the carburetor by 
pulling up the priming lever C and holding it 
up for about five seconds. Next, open the throt¬ 
tle about one-third, and start the motor; then 
close the throttle slightly, retard the spark and 
adjust throttle lever screw F and needle valve 
adjusting screw B so that the motor runs at the 
desired speed and fires on all cylinders. 

After getting a good adjustment with the 
motor running idle, do not touch the needle valve 
adjustment again, but make all intermediate and 
high speed adjustments on the dials D and E. 
Adjust pointer on the first dial D from the 
number 1 towards 3, about half way between. 
Advance the spark and open throttle so that the 
roller on the track running below the dials is 
in line with the first dial. If the motor backfires 
with the throttle in this position, and the spark 
advanced, turn the indicator a little more toward 
number 3; or if the mixture is too rich turn the 
indicator back or toward number 1, until motor 
is running properly with the throttle in this posi- 


The Automobile Handbook 


149 


tion, or at intermediate speed. Now, open the 
throttle wide and make adjustment on the dial 
E for high speed in the same manner as for in¬ 
termediate speed on dial D. 

In the majority of cases in adjusting this car¬ 
buretor the tendency is to give too rich a mix¬ 
ture. In adjusting the carburetor both at low, 
intermediate and high speeds, cut down the gaso¬ 
line until the motor begins to backfire, and then 
increase the supply of fuel, a little at a time, 
until the motor hits evenly on all the cylinders. 
Do not increase the supply of gasoline by turn¬ 
ing the needle valve adjusting screw more than 
a notch at a time in the low-speed adjustment, 
and do not turn it any after the motor hits regu¬ 
larly on all cylinders. In making the adjust¬ 
ments on the intermediate and high speed dials, 
do not turn the pointers more than one-half way 
at a time between the graduated divisions or 
marks shown on the dials. 

•The Model R Schebler carburetor, Fig. 73, is 
a single jet raised needle type of carburetor, 
automatic in action. The air valve controls the 
lift of the needle and automatically proportions 
the amount of gasoline and air at. all speeds. 

The Model R carburetor is designed with an 
adjustment for low speed; as the speed.of the 
motor increases the air valve opens, raising the 
gasoline needle, thus automatically increasing the 
amount of fuel. The carburetor has but two ad¬ 
justments—the low speed needle adjustment, 
which is made by turning the air valve cap and 




150 


The Automobile Handbook 


an adjustment on the air valve spring for chang¬ 
ing its tension. 

This carburetor has an eccentric which acts on 
the needle valve, intended to be operated either 
from the steering column or from the dash, and 
insures easy starting, as by raising the needle 
from the seat an extremely rich mixture is fur¬ 
nished for starting, and for heating up the motor 

in cold weather. A choker in the air bend is also 
furnished. 



Fig. 73 

Sehebler Carburetor, Model “R”. a, Low Speed 
djustment. B, Starting Cam Lever. C, Needle 

Va ve C °p n H‘To D ’ Startirl s Cam. E, Needle 
Valve. F, High Speed Adjustment 

When carburetor is installed see that lever 

B is attached to steering column control or dash 

control, so that when boss D of lever B is against 

stop C the lever on steering column control or 

dash control will register “Lean” or “Air." 

































The Automobile Handbook 


151 


This is the proper running position for lever B. 

To adjust carburetor turn air valve cap A 
clockwise or to the right until it stops, then turn 
to the left or anti-clockwise one complete turn. 

To start engine open throttle about one-eighth 
or one-quarter way. When motor is started let 
it run till engine is warmed, then turn air valve 
cap A to left or anti-clockwise until engine hits 
perfectly. Advance spark three-quarters of the 
way on quadrant, if engine backfires on quick 
acceleration turn adjusting screw F up (which 
increases tension on air valve spring) until ac¬ 
celeration is satisfactory. 

Turning air valve cup A to right or clockwise 
lifts needle E out of nozzle and enriches mix¬ 
ture ; turning to left or anti-clockwise lowers the 
needle into nozzle and makes mixture lean. 

When motor is cold or car has been standing,, 
move steering column or dash control lever to¬ 
wards 1 * Gas } ’ or “Rich* which lifts needle E 
out of gasoline nozzle and makes rich mixture 
for starting. As motor warms up, move control 
lever gradually back towards Air or Lean 
to obtain best running conditions until motor has 
reached normal temperature. When this tem¬ 
perature is reached control lever should be at 
“Air” or “Lean.” 

For best economy and power, the slow speed 
adjustment should be made as lean as possible. 



152 


The Automobile Handbook 


Stromberg Carburetors are made with a noz¬ 
zle, the opening in which is not adjustable. This 
nozzle is a separate part of the carburetor and 
is screwed into place from below. In order to 
adjust the gasoline flow it is necessary to remove 
one nozzle and replace it with one having a larg¬ 
er or smaller opening. The nozzles are marked 
according to drill gauge sizes and the opening 
becomes larger as the number becomes lower, that 
is to say, a number 59 is larger than a number 
60 and a number 58 is larger than a number 59. 

If, after making low speed adjustment it is 
found that the air valve remains off its seat or 
that indications of a rich mixture are still pres¬ 
ent, the nozzle is too large. If the high speed 
adjustment has to be screwed very tight it indi¬ 
cates that the nozzle is too small. In changing 
nozzles do so one size at a time, that is, do not 
drop from number 60 to a number 58, but use 
a 59 first. 

Instructions for type A. Type A, Fig. 74, is 
a water jacketed carburetor. It has its spray 
nozzle PN mounted in the center of the carbure¬ 
tor with its point 3-16 of an inch above the 
normal gasoline level and surrounded by a 
modified venturi tube. This nozzle is propor¬ 
tionate in size to the carburetor and never needs 
attention or adjustment. 

After the carburetor is installed and the gaso¬ 
line turned on, note the level of the gasoline in 
the float chamber. It should be about one inch 


The Automobile Handbook 


153 


from the lower edge of the glass. This level is 
adjusted at the factory and should be right. In 
case it is obviously wrong, remove the dust cap 
D and turn the adjusting screw S until the 
proper level is obtained. If the gasoline is too 
high, screw the nut down. If gasoline is too 
low, screw the nut up. Don’t change unless 
absolutely necessary. 


Stromberg Carburetor, Model “A” 

To start the motor close the valve S3 in the 

hot air horn H. The motor should then start 
on the second or third turn of the crank. If 
not, open the valve and it ought to start on 
the next turn. Great care should be taken to 
see that this valve is instantly opened as the 

motor starts, and is kept open. 

Season adjustments. Open and close shutter 
SA—open in summer and closed in winter. 

Low speed adjustment . Turn up the adjust- 

























154 


The Automobile Handbook 


ing nut A until the spring SI, which is the low 
speed spring, seats the valve lightly. See that 
the high speed spring above B is free and does 
not come in contact with the nut on top of the 
auxiliary air valve stem. Start the motor and 
turn nut A up or down until motor idles prop¬ 
erly. This is the low speed adjustment. 

High speed adjustment. Advance the spark 
and open the throttle. If the motor backfires 
through the carburetor, turn high speed adjust¬ 
ing nut B up until backfiring ceases. If, with 
this adjustment and running at low speeds, 
motor gallops, or the carburetor loads up, the 
mixture is too rich. The nut B should then be 
turned down until galloping or loading ceases. 
This is the high speed adjustment. The spring 
above nut B should always have at least 1-32 
inch clearance between it and the nut at the top 
when the motor is at rest. 

Instructions for type B. Type B, Fig. 75, 
is a concentric type carburetor. It has its spray 
nozzle PN mounted in the center of the car¬ 
buretor, and in the center of the float chamber, 
with its point 3-16 of an inch above the normal 
gasoline level and surrounded by a modified 
venturi tube. 

The level of the gasoline in the float chamber 
should be about 15-16 of an inch from the lower 
edge of the glass marked X. This level is adjust¬ 
ed at the factory and should be right. In case 
it is wrong, remove the dust cap D and turn 
the adjusting screw S until the proper level is 


The Automobile Handbook 155 

obtained. If the gasoline is too high screw the 
nut down. If the gasoline is too low screw the 
nut up. Don’t change unless absolutely neces¬ 
sary. 


Fig. 75 

Stromberg Carburetor, Model “B” 

Loiv speed adjustment. Turn up the adjust¬ 
ing nut A until the spring SI, which is the low 
speed spring, seats the valve lightly. See that 
the high speed spring above B is free and does 
not come into contact with the nut on top of 
the auxiliary air valve stem. Start the motor 
and turn nut A up or down until motor idles 
properly. This is the low speed adjustment. 

High speed adjustment. Advance the spark 
and open the throttle. If motor backfires 
through the carburetor, turn high speed adjust¬ 
ing nut B up until backfiring ceases. If, with 
this adjustment and running at low speeds 
motor gallops, or the carburetor loads up, the 






































156 


The Automobile Handbook 


mixture is too rich. The nut B should then be 
turned down until galloping or loading up 
ceases. This is high speed adjustment. The 
spring above nut B should always have at least 
1-32 inch clearance between it and the nut at 
the top when the motor is at rest. 



Pig. 76 

Stromberg Carburetor, Model “C” 
Instructions for type C. Type C, Fig. 76, 

is equipped with two separate gasoline spray 
nozzles. The first or primary nozzle PN is 
mounted in the venturi tube V; this nozzle 
supplying sufficient gasoline for all speeds up to 
twenty or twenty-five miles per hour. The sec¬ 
ond or auxiliary nozzle is mounted just beneath 
the secondary gasoline needle valve ANY in 
the auxiliary air passage AA, and is opened by 
the lever L operating over a fulcrum F by the 
opening of the auxiliary air valve AY. 





















The Automobile Handbook 157 

Turn up the lower adjusting nut N, located 
underneath the auxiliary air valve, so that the 
valve is brought up to seat, then give two full 
turns to the right as a starting adjustment. 
This valve should be seated on extreme idle. 
The spring SI is the low speed spring and does 
the work up to the opening of the auxiliary 

needle. 

Start the motor and turn low speed nut N up 
or down until the motor idles properly, then 
advance the spark, open the throttle, and if the 
motor backfires turn nut LN down until it 
ceases. If mixture is too rich, turn it up. Be 
sure that nut LN and lever L have some clear¬ 
ance on low speed. 

The proper gasoline level is about 1 inch 
from the lower edge of the glass. If more than 
i/ 8 inch either way remove the dust cap and 

adjust by screws. 

High speed adjustment . The high speed is 
regulated by the lock nut LN on top of the 
auxiliary air valve. As it is raised or lowered 
it determines the point at which the auxiliary 
needle valve ANV will be brought into play. 
To lock nut LN should be about 3-32 of an inch 
above the lever L for normal adjustment, but 
this distance can be increased or decreased to 

suit the motor. 

To find primary nozzle size. If the mixture 
is too rich on low speed after adjustments are 
made according to instructions, take out the 
plug P and remove the nozzle PN with a screw- 



158 


The Automobile Handbook 


driver. Insert smaller nozzle (59 is smaller 
than 58). If the mixture is too lean on low 
speed a larger nozzle should be inserted. If 
the engine misses on low speed it may be caused 
by an air leak, and all the joints between the 
carburetor and the motor should be examined 
before a large nozzle is inserted. 



Fig. 77 

Stromberg Carburetor, Model “G” 

Instructions for type G. Type G, Fig. 77, 
5s a non-water-jacketed model furnished in 
either single or double jet according to motor 
requirements. 

Air adjustments. There are only two adjust¬ 
ments that ever need attention, A, the low speed 
nut, and B, the high speed nut. 

With the motor at rest, set the high speed nut 
B so there is at least 1-16 of an inch clearance 
between the spring G and the nut X above it. 
This is imperative. 


















The Automobile Handbook 159 

Set tlie low speed nut A so the air valve E is 
seated lightly. Do not adjust carburetor until 
motor is thoroughly warmed up. When motor 
is warm and with spark retarded adjust nut 
A up or down until motor runs smoothly at low 
speed. To determine proper adjustment open 
the air valve with finger by depressing X 
slightly. If, when so doing, motor speeds up 
noticeably it indicates too rich a mixture and 
A should he turned down notch by notch. If, 
on the other hand, motor dies suddenly when 
slightly opening the air valve it indicates too 
lean a mixture and A should be turned up until 
this is overcome. 

Once properly set for idling do not change 
this adjustment when making the high speed 
adjustment. 

Advance the spark at the normal position and 
open the throttle gradually. If motor back¬ 
fires through the carburetor it is positive in¬ 
dication of too lean a mixture and nut B should 
he turned up notch by notch until this is over¬ 
come. 

If mixture is too rich, as indicated by loading 
of the motor and heavy black smoke from the 
exhaust, turn B down until motor operates 
properly. A further test for the correct mix¬ 
ture at high speed can he made by depressing 
the air valve when the motor is running at this 
speed. If when so doing motor speeds up it 
indicates too rich a mixture. 

Turning either adjusting nut up means a 



160 The Automobile Handbook 

richer mixture or more gas. Down means a 
leaner mixture or more air. To get highest effi¬ 
ciency from this carburetor, hot air equipment 
should be used. 

Double jet type. If, after following the in¬ 
structions given below, and with the motor run¬ 
ning idle at low speed, the air valve E remains 
tightly seated, it indicates too small a primary 
nozzle C, and a larger one should be substi¬ 
tuted. If with the proper adjustment, and after 
stopping the engine, the air valve hangs off its 
seat the primary nozzle is too large and a 
smaller one should be used. To change the pri¬ 
mary nozzle remove the petcock, insert a narrow 
screwdriver and unscrew the nozzle. 

If the mixture at low speed is correct, but in 
order to get the proper high speed adjustment 
it is necessary to turn the nut B up so far that 
. spring G is in contact with X above it, after 
the engine has been stopped, it indicates that 
the auxiliary nozzle J is too small and a larger 
one should be used. If it is necessary, in order 
to get the proper high speed adjustment, to turn 
the nut B down so that there is more than % 
inch clearance between G and X when the en¬ 
gine is idle, it indicates too large an auxiliary 
nozzle and a smaller one should be used. 

Instructions for types H and HA. There are 
only two adjustments on this carburetor. Fig. 
78. A, the low speed, and B for high speed. 
A is a needle valve, seating in an open nozzle, 
the opening of which is usually two sizes larger 


The Automobile Handbook 


161 


than is ordinarily necessary, and which per¬ 
mits an increase in gasoline flow to that extent 
or allows a complete closing. The high speed 
adjustment controls the flow of gasoline for 
high speeds by regulating the time at which the 
secondary needle valve begins to open. 



Fig. 78 

Stromberg Carburetor, Models "H” and “HA 
To adjust, set the high speed nut B so that 
there is at least 1-32 of an inch clearance be¬ 
tween it and the needle valve cap above it at 
X when the air valve E is on its seat. The 
needle valve does not begin to open until B 
comes into contact with X. Before starting the 
engine be sure that the rocker arm of the dash 
adjustment on the carburetor is not in contact 
with the collar above it at Z when the steering 

post button is all the way down. 

To start the engine, pull the steeling post 
control to its highest position, thus producing a 






















162 


The Automobile Handbook 


rich mixture. In cold weather it may also be 
necessary to close the air supply in the hot air 
horn by means of a rod connected to R. This 
should be again opened as soon as the engine 
starts. As the engine warms up, gradually 
lower the steering post control and make sure 
that it is at its lowest position before commenc¬ 
ing to adjust the carburetor. 



Fig. 79 

Stromberg Carburetor, Model “K” 


The mixture at low speed is controlled by the 
needle valve A. If too rich is indicated, by the 
engine “rolling” or “loading,” turn A up or 
anti-clockwise. If the mixture is not rich 
enough, turn A down or clockwise. To adjust 
high speed, advance the spark and open the 
throttle. If the mixture is not rich enough 
at high speeds, turn B up or anti-clockwise, 
and if the mixture is too rich turn B down or 
clockwise. 

Instructions for types K and KO. The nut 











The Automobile Handbook 


163 


A is the only adjustment on this carburetor, 
Fig. 79. The stem of this nut supports the 
lower end of a spring that controls the air 
valve. This air valve opens downward into the 
air chamber. -Turning the nut A clockwise or 
down tightens this spring, admitting less air 
and producing a richer mixture. Turning A 
in the opposite direction or anti-clockwise pro¬ 
duces a leaner mixture. 

Before starting the engine turn A anti-clock¬ 
wise until a point is reached where, when lift¬ 
ing or pulling up on A, a decided click is 
heard. This is the air valve coming in contact 
with its seat. Then turn A clockwise or down 
until the click is no longer obtained. This turn¬ 
ing should be a notch at a time, and when the 
click can not be heard, turn two more notches 
in the same direction. To start the engine, 
raise the steering post control to its highest 
position. Gradually lower the control as the 
engine warms up, and make sure that this con¬ 
trol is at its lowest position before starting to 
adjust the carburetor. With the engine warm, 
turn A up or down, notch by notch, until the 
engine idles properly. It should not be neces¬ 
sary to change the initial setting more than a 
few notches. 

The high speed mixture can only be affected 
by changing the nozzle. If the high speed 
mixture is too thin, so that slightly closing the 
dash throttle valve R causes an increase of en¬ 
gine speed, a larger nozzle should be used. If 





164 


The Automobile Handbook 


the high speed mixture is too rich use a smaller 

nozzle. The nozzle size furnished is based on 

«*» 

18 inches of hot air tubing. If this tubing is 
more than 24 inches long, one size smaller noz¬ 
zle can probably be used, while if the tubing 
is less than 10 inches long one size larger may 
be required. 



Stromberg Plain Tube Carburetors, These 
instruments differ from the older models in that 
they are of the plain tube type having all air 
passages fixed in size and without valves, while 
the gasoline is measured by the air flow itself. 
The mixture proportion is maintained constant 




























































TJie Automobile Handbook 


165 


by a peculiar form of jet shown in Figure 80, 
in which a small amount of air is mixed with 
the gasoline before the fuel reaches the main 
jets: 

For the Model L carburetor, shown in Figure 
81, also for the corresponding side outlet type, 
Model LB, there are three adjustments, high 
speed, idling and starting. The high speed is 



controlled by the knurled nut marked High 
Speed” which locates the position of the needle 
past whose point is taken all the gasoline at all 
speeds. Turning this nut to the right, clock¬ 
wise, raises the needle and gives a richer mix¬ 
ture; while turning to the left gives a leaner 

mixture. 

To make an adjustment put the starting lever 
L in the fifth notch, farthest from the float cham- 

































































































166 


The Automobile Handbook 


ber and turn the high speed nut to the left 
until the needle reaches its seat as shown by the 
nut moving when the throttle is opened and 
closed. When the needle is on its seat it can 
be felt to stick slightly when the nut is lifted 
with the fingers. Find the point of adjustment 
where this nut just begins to move with the 
throttle opening, then turn 24 notches to the 
right. Now move the starting lever back to the 
O notch, toward the float chamber, which will 
give a rich adjustment. After starting and 
warming the engine the mixture may be made 
leaner by turning the high speed nut to the left 
until a point is found where the engine responds 
best to quick opening of the throttle and shows 
the best power. 

The low speed or idling adjustment is con¬ 
trolled by the adjusting screw B. The gasoline 
for idling is taken in above the throttle and is 
regulated by dilution with air. Screwing nut 
B in, or clockwise, gives a richer mixture while 
turning it outward gives more air. The best 
adjustment is usually from one-half to three 
turns outward from the. seating position. This 
is only an idling adjustment and does not affect 
the mixture above 8 miles per hour.. When the 
engine is idling properly there should be a 
steady hiss in the carburetor. If there is a weak 
cylinder or a leak in the manifold, or if the idle 
adjustment is very much too rich, the hissing 
will be unsteady. 

The starting device, called the “economizer,” 


The Automobile Handbook 


167 


operates to make a leaner mixture through low¬ 
ering the high speed needle at throttle positions 
corresponding to speeds from five to forty miles 
per hour. The amount of needle drop and con¬ 
sequent leanness is regulated by the position of 
the pointer. 

After making the high speed adjustment for 
best power with the pointer in the 0 notch, place 



Stromberg Mod^l M Carbureter 

the throttle lever on the steering wheel in a 
position corresponding to about 20 miles per 
hour road speed. Then move the pointer clock¬ 
wise, away from the float chamber, one notch at 
a time, until the engine begins to slow down, 
then come back one notch 

The MB carburetors shown in Figure 82 has 
two adjustments, the high epeed at A, and a 
low speed setting similar to that hV Modef 1/ 



































































168 


TJie Automobile Handbook 


Zenith Carburetor, Model 0. This carbure¬ 
tor, a cross-section of which is shown in Fig. 
83, consists of a float chamber, a carbureting 
chamber, a system of nozzle and air passages and 
a hot air sleeve. 

Zenith carburetors have fixed air and fuel 
openings and operate without automatic valves 
of any kind. With the proper setting once 
secured it is maintained under all conditions. 

Gasoline from the tank enters the strainer 
body D, passes through the wire gauge Dl, and 
enters the float chamber through the valve seat 
S. As soon as the gasoline reaches a predeter¬ 
mined height in the float chamber the metal 
float F, acting through the levers B and collar 
G2, closes the needle valve G1 on its seat. To 
see if there is any gasoline in the carburetor 
remove dust cap Cl. If the needle valve can be 
depressed with the finger there is no gasoline in 
the carburetor. From the float chamber to the 
raotor gasoline flows through three different 
channels in various quantities and proportions 
according to the speed of the motor and degree 
of throttle opening. With the throttle fully 
open, most of the gasoline flows through the 
channel E and main jet G. Some flows through 
compensator I, then through K to the cap jet 
H, which surrounds the main jet. The main 
jet and cap jet work together and their com¬ 
bination furnishes the mixture required for 
various engine speeds. At slow speed when the 
throttle T is nearly closed they give but little 


The Automobile Handbook 


169 



Zenith Carburetor, Model “0”. B, Float Control 
Lever. Cl, Dust Cap. D, Strainer Body. Dl, 
Wire Gauze. E, Gasoline Channel. F, Float. 
G, Main Jet. Gl, Needle Valve. G2, Float 
Control Collar. I, Gas Well Opening. H, Sec¬ 
ondary Nozzle. J, Gasoline Well. K, Gasoline 
Passage. L, Drain Plug. N, Idling Adjust¬ 
ment. S, Float Valve Opening. T, Throttle. 
X, Choke Tube. 























































































170 The Automobile Handbook 

or no gasoline, but, as there is considerable suc¬ 
tion on the edge of the butterfly the tube J, 
terminating in a hole near the edge of the but¬ 
terfly, picks up gasoline, which is measured out 
by a small hole at the top of the priming plug. 
The well over compensator I is open to the air 
through two holes, one of which is indicated be¬ 
low the priming plug in the illustration. These 
air openings are important. 

The hot air sleeve is provided with an air 
strangler actuated by a lever and having 
a coiled spring to bring it back to the open posi¬ 
tion. The flexible hot air tubing is attached to 
this sleeve and feeds the carburetor with air 
that has been heated by contact with the ex¬ 
haust pipe. 

To start the engine open the throttle a little 
way. There will be a strong suction on the tube 
J which will raise the gasoline and thus prime 
the motor. The only adjustment that may be 
useful is the slow speed adjustment, which is 
obtained by the screw 0. Tightening this screw 
restricts the air entrance to the slow speed noz¬ 
zle, giving a richer mixture. 

It is essential that none of the parts shall be 
tampered with, or the size of the jets altered by 
reaming or hammering. These jets are tested 
for actual flow of gasoline and brought to a 
standard. The nominal size of the hole in hun¬ 
dredths of a millimeter is stamped on the jet: 
the higher the number, the larger hole. 

Variables that can be modified for the initial 


The Automobile Handbook 


171 


setting of the carburetor: First, the choke tube 
X. This choke tube is held in place by set 
screws and can be removed after taking apart 
the throttle. 

It is really an air nozzle, of such a stream 
line shape that there will be no eddies in the 
air drawn through it. 

For a 4 cylinder engine whose maximum speed 
is 1,500 R. P. M., to obtain the choke number, 
multiply the bore in inches by five and add one 
to the result. 

For 6 cylinder, take a choke one size larger 
up to 4%" bore and two sizes larger above 4%" 
bore. 

If the engine is so built that it can turn up 
to 1,800 R. P. M., increase these results 8% ; up 
to 2,000 R. P. M., increase 16% ; up to 2,500 
R. P. M., increase 25%. 

A choke tube too small will cause a loss of 
charge at high speed, the car will not attain its 
proper speed. 

A choke tube too large will lead to irregulari¬ 
ties when slowing down and picking up. 

Second—Main Jet C. The effect of this jet 
is most marked at high speed, 1,400 R. P. M. 

Third— Compensating Jet I. This jet, which 
compounds with the main jet, exerts its maxi¬ 
mum influence at lower speeds, 600 R. P. M., 
and in picking up. 

Fourth—Secondary Well P. This regulates 
the amount of gasoline used when idling. 



172 


The Automobile Handbook 




























































































The Automobile Handbook 


173 


Zenith Carburetor Principle. The prin¬ 
ciple upon which the Zenith carburetor operates 
may be understood by reference to Figures 84. 
The elementary type of carburetor shown at the 
top consists of a single jet or spraying nozzle 
placed in the path of the incoming air and fed 
from a float feed device. 

While it might be supposed that, with 
increase of engine speed, the flow of both gaso¬ 
line and air would increase in proportion, this 
is not actually the case. The flow of gasoline 
increases in almost direct proportion with the 
engine speed but because the increase of suction 
or vacuum tends to draw the air out thinner and 
thinner, the actual quantity of air does not 
increase in amf such proportion and the mixture 
of gas supplied by such a carburetor would 
become richer as the speed increases. 

Referring to the center drawing in the Figure 
it will be seen that, between the float bowl and 
the jet, has been placed a well J which is open 
to the outside air and through which the gaso¬ 
line passes by way of the opening I, thence pass¬ 
ing as before to the jet H. It will be realized 
that the maximum amount of fuel that can reach 
the jet H will be determined by the size of the 
opening I without regard to the suction exist¬ 
ing around H because the flow through I is not 
directly acted upon by this suction. With such 
a device the air flow will increase with speed of 
the engine; and while it will not be in direct 
proportion, there will be an increase over the 



174 The Automobile Handbook 

whole range of engine speed. Now, inasmuch 
as the flow of gasoline cannot increase beyond 
a certain amount, while the flow of air will 
increase, the mixture furnished by such an ar¬ 
rangement will become weaker with increase of 
engine speed. 

In the Zenith carburetor these two types of 
jets are combined as shown in the lower drawing. 
The direct suction, or richer mixture type, leads 
through pipe E and nozzle G, while the limited 
flow device consists of the well J, opening I, 
passage K and jet H. As the flow of fuel from 
jet H counteracts the change in the flow from 
jet G, the complete mixture may be made prac¬ 
tically of constant proportions over all ranges 
of speed. 


The Automobile Handbook 


175 


\ 


Chain Drive. This form of power transmis¬ 
sion, an application of which is shown in Figures 
85 and 86, is largely used on motor trucks of 
large load carrying capacity. The chain drive 
system makes use of a jack shaft placed cross¬ 
wise of the car and containing the differential 
gearing. The change speed gearing is usually 
attached to this cross shaft. At the outer ends 
of the driving members of the jack shaft are 
mounted sprockets and a second sprocket is 



fastened to each of the rear driving wheels. 
Between the two sets of sprockets are placed 
chains of the roller type. The reduction in 
speed between engine and road wheels is 
obtained at two points, the first in the bevel 
gears of the jack shaft and the second due to 
the difference in size and number of teeth on the 
front and read sprockets. The rear axle used 
with chain drive systems is a simple solid mem¬ 
ber on the ends of which are carried the wheels. 
The axle may be of tubular, square, rectangular 
or “I” beam section. 




















176 The Automobile Handbook 

Chain drive is satisfactory and efficient as 
long as the chains are kept clean and well oiled. 
Due to their exposed position this is a difficult 



matter and in many cases they have been 
enclosed in cases of pressed or cast steel. 

The roller chains used are described according 













































































































































The Automobile Handbook 


177 


to three measurements; first the pitch which is 
the distance from the center of one roller to the 
center of one adjoining, second the width which 
is the distance across the opening in the links 
in which the sprocket teeth engage and third 
the outside diameter of the rollers, all of these 
sizes being given in inches. 

The distance between the jack shaft sprockets 
and the wheel sprockets is determined and main¬ 
tained by means of radius rods which are fixed 



swivel joints. These rods are made adjustable 
for length so that chain wear may be compen¬ 
sated for. 

Sprockets. The circular instead of the linear 
pitch is often erroneously used in calculating 
the pitch diameter of a sprocket wheel. Refer¬ 
ence to Figure 87 will illustrate the difference 
between circular and linear pitch, and help to 
demonstrate the case more clearly. The view at 
the left of the drawing shows the circular pitch, 






178 The Automobile Handbook 

and the view at the right the linear pitch of a 
gear or sprocket wheel respectively. If the cir¬ 
cular pitch of the gear be one inch and the gear 
has six teeth as shown, the pitch diameter will 
be 6X0.3183, which gives 1.91 inches as the 
pitch diameter. Let the linear pitch of the 
sprocket be also one inch, and with six teeth as 
before. In a sprocket having 6 teeth, the ra¬ 
dius is equal to the linear pitch, as the figure is 
composed of six equilateral triangles, and the 
pitch diameter of the sprocket wheel is conse¬ 
quently 2 inches. 

The pitch of the sprocket must, of course, be 
the same as that of the chain to be used with 
it. Chain pitches usually measure in even 
inches and common fractions. The type of 
chain, whether roller, block or silent, must also 
be considered. It is not safe to use mismated 
chains and sprockets. 

Sprockets, Dimensions of. Table 8 gives the 
pitch diameters of sprockets for roller chain of 
1 inch, D/4 inch and iy 2 inch pitch, with 7 to 
28 teeth. The outside diameters may be found 
by adding the diameter of the roller to the pitch 
diameter of the sprocket. 

Sprocket Chain Lubrication. The best lubri¬ 
cant for sprocket chains is a constant puzzle. 
If oil is used it is absorbed by the dust which 
settles on the chain. If tallow or other animal 
grease is employed it is pushed away from the 
bearing surfaces, and the latter get dry. The 
ideal lubricant would seem to be something be- 


The Automobile Handbook 


179 


TABLE 8. 

DIMENSIONS OF SPROCKETS FOR ROLLER CHAIN. 


Number of 
Teeth in 
Sprocket. 


9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 
18 
20 
22 
24 
26 
28 


1 Inch 
Pitch. 


Pitch Dia. 


2.31 
2.61 
2.92 
3.24 
3.54 
3.86 
4.18 
4.50 
4.81 
5.12 
5.76 
6.39 
7.03 
7.66 

8.31 
8.95 


1% Inch 
Pitch. 


Pitch Dia. 


2.88 

3.27 

3.65 

4.04 

4.44 

4.83 

5.22 

5.62 

6.01 

6.41 

6.41 

7.99 

8.79 

9.58 

10.38 

11.19 


iy 2 Inch 
Pitch. 


Pitch Dia. 


3.46 

3.92 

4.38 

4.85 

5.33 

5.79 

6.27 

6.75 

7.22 

7.69 

8.64 

9.59 

10.55 

11.49 

12.44 

13.42 


tween an oil and a grease, too thick to be drawn 




out by absorption, yet soft enough and clinging 
enough to stay in the rollers. This mission is 
approximately fulfilled by a mineral grease, 
such as non-fluid oil, or Keystone grease, which 
are not affected by moderate changes of tem¬ 
perature, and have the clinging quality which 
animal greases lack. The makers of these 
greases, however, do not recommend heating 
them, and they cannot be introduced into the 
links and rollers of the chains, except by ren¬ 
dering them temporarily more fluid than they 
are desired to be in service. A very good lubri¬ 
cant for this purpose is made by dissolving Key¬ 
stone grease in gear case oil, in amounts suffi¬ 
cient to produce a viscous fluid at the boiling 























180 


The Automobile Handbook 


point, which thickened when cold, and would 
just barely flow. A fairly liberal quantity of 
graphite was added, about half a cupful to three 
quarts of dope, and the chains after cleaning 
were boiled for half an hour or longer in the 
mixture to enable it to penetrate thoroughly. 


The Automobile Handbook 


181 


Change Speed Gearing. 

The means provided for securing different 
ratios of speed between the engine and road 
wheels of the car is oftentimes called the 
transmission. Strictly speaking, the transmis¬ 
sion system includes all the parts between en¬ 
gine and wheels; the clutch, universals and 
rear axle parts, as well as the mechanism that 
allows various forward speeds and the reverse. 
The Change Speed Gear takes various forms; 
planetary, friction, sliding gear and magnetic, 
each being described. 

Change Speed Gears. When a gasoline en¬ 
gine is loaded above a certain limit it slows 
down, and the intervals of time between ex¬ 
plosions in each cylinder become so far apart 
that the engine begins to labor, and will finally 
stop altogether, unless some means is provided 
whereby the revolutions of the engine may be 
increased without increasing the number of 
revolutions of the driven shaft, or car axle. 
This is accomplished by means of the change 
speed gear, of which there are two classes, viz., 
those in which an infinite series of variations 
in speed ratio is possible, and those in which 
only a comparatively small number of step-by- 
step ratios can be utilized. In the first class 
are several styles of belt and friction disc 
drives, while in the second class are the change 
speed gears proper, namely, sliding gears, indi¬ 
vidual clutch gears, and planetary gears. 

Belt and friction drives constitute the only 




182 


The Automobile Handbook 


practical forms of change speed devices in 
which variation from the highest to the lowest 
speed may be possible. In other change speed 
gears the ratio is changed by passing from one 
to another in a series of definite steps. 



Friction Drive. One of the most simple 
methods of changing the speed ratio between 
the motor and the driven shaft is the friction 
d n ve, which in its simplest form consists of 
two discs at right angles to each other, see Fig. 





























































The Automobile Handbook 183 

88, in which b is the fly wheel, the exterior sur¬ 
face of which is made a true plane, and usually 
covered with a special friction metal. A hori¬ 
zontal shaft located crosswise of the car body 
carries a friction pulley c, in close proximity to 
the surface of the fly wheel b. 

Friction pulley c while secured from turning 
on shaft, may at the same time be shifted along 
at the will of the operator, and thus be 
brought in contact with any portion of the sur¬ 
face of the flywheel, from its center to its outer 
edge. The shaft also carries on its outer ends* 
the sprocket wheels which drive chains e and 
f, by means of which the power is transmitted 
to the drivers. In this device if the friction pul¬ 
ley c be brought in contact with the exact cen¬ 
ter of fly wheel b, no motion will be imparted 
to c, but if it be moved outward from the 
center of the flywheel it will revolve, the num¬ 
ber of revolutions it makes being governed by 
its distance from the center. The maximum 
speed is attained by friction pulley c when it is 
brought into contact with the surface of the fly 
wheel near the periphery of the latter. All po¬ 
sitions of friction pulley c upon one side of the 
center of fly wheel b impart a forward motion 
to the car, and all those on the other side of the 
center impart a reverse, or backing motion. The 
traversing movement of pulley c along its shaft 
is usually produced by a hand lever provided 
with a notched quadrant, whereby the pulley is 
held at all times in some one of the many posi- 



184 


The Automobile Handbook 


tions giving graduations of speed. The method 
usually employed for making and breaking con¬ 
tact between the friction pulley, and flywheel 
face, consists in mounting the bearings of the 
cross, or countershaft in swinging brackets.. An¬ 
other method is to mount these bearings in ec¬ 
centric housings, a slight rotation of which in 
the bearing brackets will cause the shaft and 
with it the pulley to approach, or recede from 
the face of flywheel b. The movement of the 
shaft toward, or away from the flywheel is pro¬ 
duced by a ratchet retained pedal through a 
reducing linkage, which multiplies the foot 
pressure. 

Double Disk Friction Drive. The limitation 
of the single disc and wheel to small power, and 
light loads, has led to the development of the 
double disc, double wheel type of friction gear 
illustrated in Fig. 89. 

The engine shaft is extended, and carries two 
disc fly wheels A and B, while friction pulleys 
C and D are each carried upon one half of 
the cross shaft which is divided at its center. 
Friction pulleys C and D are made to slide 
along the shafts H and F, and are controlled 
by a common sliding mechanism, so that they 
always bear upon points of discs A and B, hav¬ 
ing the same velocities. Driving contact is ef¬ 
fected by swinging' shafts H and F in a hori¬ 
zontal plane, and it is obvious that if one of the 
pulleys, D for instance, is pressed against the 
face of A, it will revolve in one direction, while 


The Automobile Handbook 


1S5 


if brought to bear on B it will revolve in the 
opposite direction, thus providing for a go- 
ahead, or a back-up motion being imparted to 
either friction wheel at will, dependent upon 
whether it is in contact with the forward, or the 



rearward disc. It is also evident that if one 
of the wheels, say D, is pressed against A, and 
the other wheel C is also pressed against B, 
their shafts will rotate in opposite directions. 
The ratio of the common angular velocity of the 













































































186 


The Automobile Handbook 


wheels and their shafts to that of the discs is 
in proportion to their distance from the center 
of the discs. Sprockets upon the extremities of 
shaft H and F drive the road wheels by chains, 
and sometimes no differential is employed, 
power being shut off when turning corners, or, 
if not, the inevitable slip is divided between the 
frictional contacts, and the contacts of the tires 
• with the road. A differential may be mounted 
in either shaft H or F at will. 

Instead of the two shafts H and F being sep¬ 
arate, they may be joined to form a continuous 
shaft and pivoted in the center. The shaft as 
a whole is capable of being slightly swung in a 
horizontal plane about its center, so as to bring 
friction wheel D in contact with one disc, and 
friction wheel C in contact with the other, thus 
producing either the forward or reverse drive. 
In this case a single sprocket is carried by the 
shaft and drives a live rear axle. 

Friction Drives—Materials For. In fric¬ 
tion drives, one of the surfaces in contact is 
generally a metal, while the other surface is 
composed of some kind of organic material, of 
a slightly yielding or conforming nature. Cast 
iron with cork inserts may be used for the me¬ 
tallic surface, the cork inserts serving to in¬ 
crease the co-efficient of friction, besides absorb¬ 
ing any oil that may accidently reach the sur¬ 
faces. Aluminum is no doubt the best material 
for the metallic surface, on account of its plastic 
nature. Copper also possesses similar proper¬ 
ties. For the non-metallic surface, leather is 
good so long as oil is kept from accumulating 


The Automobile Handbook 


187 


on it, but its co-efficient drops rapidly as soon 
as oil gets between the contact surfaces. 

Some kind of vegetable fibre, made into a 
paper or mill board, seems to be the preferred 
material, and it is common to treat such paper 
with a tarry composition, which tends to raise 
the co-efficient of friction, as well as to render 
its value more nearly constant under the influ¬ 
ence of water and oil. 

The non-metallic friction face is the one worn 
out in service, or at least it wears the more rap¬ 
idly. This part of the combination, though of 
limited life, can be renewed at a comparatively 
small expense, and it fails only after giving due 
notice. It is the practice to make the disc face 
metallic, and the friction wheel rim non-metal¬ 
lic. Great care should be exercised in starting 
the car, as at such times the disc is liable to 
slip at speed upon the rim of the friction wheel 
which is then either stationary or revolving 
very slowly, and flat spots may very easily be 

worn upon its surface. 

The Planetary Change Speed Gear. This 
system of transmitting the power at “v arious 
speeds comprises a high-speed connection for 
the direct drive, and an arrangement of gears 
that reduces or reverses the motion when one 
or another drum on which these gears or pin¬ 
ions are mounted is held stationary. Most 
planetary systems give only two forward speeds 
and the reverse, but in some instances they are 
made to give three forward speeds. They are 





188 


The Automobile Handbook 


used chiefly on small automobiles, or runabouts; 
but when cheapness of construction is an object 
they are sometimes employed on touring cars. 

In Fig. 90 is shown one form of planetary 
system. The gear a is the only one keyed to 



the engine shaft b. The gears c, d and e all 
mesh with the gear a, and are made long enough 
to extend beyond a and mesh with the gears 
f, g and h in pairs. The last three gears in 
turn extend beyond the gears c, d an^ e, and 








































The Automobile Handbook 


189 


mesh with the gear i, which is keyed to a sleeve 
connected to the drum j. The gears c, d, e, f y 
g and h turn on pins fastened to the drum k r 
but only the gears c, d and e mesh with a, and 
only f, g and h mesh with the gear i which 
turns loosely on the shaft b. The internal gear 
1 meshes only with the gears c, d and e, and 
is rigidly connected to the sprocket m that 
drives the automobile. The cover n is attached 
to the face of the drum k by means of screws, 
thus forming an oil reservoir that keeps the 
gears well lubricated when the automobile is 
running. There are separate brake bands 
around the drums j and k, and a friction disc 
keyed to the shaft just outside of the drum j. 

When the friction disc is pressed against the 
drum j, the gear is held so that it must turn 
with the shaft; consequently, the entire me¬ 
chanism is locked together and the sprocket m 
turns at its highest forward speed. If now the 
friction disc is released and the brake band 
around the drum j is applied so as to hold it 
from turning, then the gear a turns the gears 
c, d and e, causing them to turn the gears f, 
g and h; but, as the gear i is held stationary 
with the drum j, the gears f, g and h, and also 
the drum k, to which they are attached, must 
revolve around the gear i in the same direction 
as the shaft turns, but more slowly. The gears 
c, cl and e turn on pins that are fastened to the 
drum k; consequently, they revolve with it as 
they turn on their axes and thus cause the in- 


190 


The Automobile Handbook 


ternal gear 1 and the sprocket m to turn in the 
same direction as the shaft. This gives the slow 
forward speed. 

When the drum j is released, and the drum k 
is held by a brake band, the gears c, d and e 
are caused to turn on their pins, and conse¬ 
quently drive the internal gear 1 in a direction 
opposite to that of the engine shaft, driving the 
automobile backwards. When the brake bands 
and friction disc are all free from the drums, 
the gears turn idly, and if the engine is running, 
no motion is transmitted to the sprocket and 
. the automobile stands still. 

Ford Planetary Change Gear. The gears 
in the Ford transmission are arranged as shown 
in Figure 91 and all of these sets revolve around 
the main shaft. This device uses all spur gears, 
that is, gears having external, rather than 
internal, teeth. .As in other planetary drives 
the speed ratios are secured by stopping the 
movement of certain gears which are carried 
on parts attached to cylindrical drums. Bands, 
similar to brake bands, act on these drums to 
stop their rotation, the tightening of any band 
stopping its corresponding drum and bringing 
the required gears into action. 

Mounted with their centers in line with the 
main shaft of the transmission and in line with 
the crankshaft of the engine are three gears, 
two of which are attached to two separate drums 
while the third is called the driven gear and is 
attached to the shaft through which the rear 


The Automobile Handbook 


191 


axle is driven. These three gears vary in size 
but are all fastened together so that they rotate 
at the same rate of speed and as a unit. In mesh 
with these gears and spaced eqni-distant around 
their circumferences are three sets of three 
gears each. 

When it is desired to start the car from a 
standstill, a pedal is pressed which causes one 



of the drums to stop revolving. This drum is 
attached to one of the gears of the three on the 
main shaft. The pins or axles of the three sets 
of three gears are fastened to the flywheel of 
the engine so that when the engine is running 
the sets of gears are carried around on the outer 
edges of the gears which are mounted concentric 
with the shaft. Because of the fact that the 






























192 


The Automobile Handbook 



one gear being held by the band and drum is 
standing still, the sets of three gears must turn 
around their own centers in traveling around 
the outside of this center gear, and, depending 
on the relative sizes of the stationary gear and 
the gears traveling around it, a motion is 
imparted to the driven gear on the shaft, which 
may be either forward or backward. 


Fig. 92 


CHANGE SPEED, SLIDING GEAR TYPE. 

A form of change speed gearing that is in 
use on a large majority of cars is that known 
as the sliding gear. All sliding gear trans- 






The Automobile Handbook 


193 


missions consist of two principal shafts lying 
parallel to each other and placed one above the 
other or side by side. Each shaft carries a 

series of gears, those on one shaft being per¬ 
manently fastened against lengthwise move¬ 
ment, while those on the other shaft are capable 
of being moved along the shaft while turning 
with it. This latter set of gears is built with 

either a square or key-wayed hub and the shaft 
on which the set slides is made square or with 

spline keys to correspond. The gears on the 
other shaft are made of such sizes that when 
the sliding members are moved they come into 
mesh with the gears on the other shaft so that 
when together they form pairs, that is to say, 
when a gear on one shaft is in mesh with one 
on the other shaft it is impossible to cause 
any other gears to mesh at the same time. 

The gears are graduated in size so that the 
several pairs or combinations that may be 
formed vary in ratio, and in this way it is pos¬ 
sible to obtain different degrees of speed reduc¬ 
tions between the two shafts and therefore 
between the engine and road wheels. 

In forms of construction that use the two 
shafts exactly as described in the previous para¬ 
graphs, and in which one shaft is connected 
through the clutch to the engine and the other 
one through the drive parts to the rear wheels, 
the series of sliding gears is made with all of 
the gears fastened together so that there can be 
no relative motion between them, and in this 


194 


The Automobile Handbook 



Pig. 9 3 

Selective Sliding Change Speed Gears 


































The Automobile Handbook 


195* 


case the entire sliding member is moved bodily 
along the shaft. This particular form is known 
as a progressive sliding gear. It is necessary, 
with this type of construction, to pass from one 
ratio to another in the same order for each 
operation, and if it is desired to pass from the 
extreme low ratio to the highest ratio, it is nec- 



Selective Sliding Gear With Disc Clutch in a 
Unit Power Plant. A, Clutch Shaft. B, Clutch 
Shaft Gear. C, Countershaft Gear. D, Second 
Speed Gear. E, Low Speed Countershaft Gear. 
F Second Speed Sliding Gear. G, Low and Re- 
verse Sliding Gear. H, Sliding Gear Shaft.. 
essary to pass through all intermediate ratios. 

The progressive form of transmission is no 
longer fitted to cars and an extended descrip¬ 
tion is not considered necessary. 







































































































196 


The Automobile Handbook 


The type of sliding gear transmission that 
is most popular is called the selective sliding 
gear and with the exception of some important 
modifications is similar in operation and con¬ 
struction to the progressive type already de¬ 
scribed. Selective sliding gears are shown in 
Figs. 92 to 97 and the following description 
will apply more or less to all of them although 
the form shown in Fig. 94 is specifically cov¬ 
ered. It will be noted that the clutch is at the 
left hand end of the illustration, and through 
this clutch the power of the engine is trans¬ 
mitted to the shaft marked A. At the right 
hand end of the shaft A is carried a gear B, 
and this gear is in mesh with the gear C on 
the lower shaft of the transmission, it will there¬ 
fore be seen that whenever the clutch causes 
shaft A to revolve, gears B and C will also turn, 
and inasmuch as C is fastened solidly to the 
lower shaft of the transmission, this lower shaft 
will turn whenever the engine is running and 
the clutch engaged. The upper shaft in the 
transmission marked H is not made in one piece 
with shaft A, but its left hand end is made of 
a diameter sufficiently small to fit into a recess 
in the shaft A and in the hub of the gear B. 
This construction simply provides a bearing for 
one end of the shaft H so that it may revolve 
independently of shaft A. Shaft H is formed 
with four longitudinal keys integral, and on 
this shaft are mounted the gears F and G with 
their hubs formed with keyways to engage 


The Automobile Handbook 


197 


the keys on shaft H. This construction allows 
the gears F and G to be moved lengthwise while 
turning with the shaft. Gears D and F are 
made of such diameter that when F is moved 
to the right it meshes with D and gears E and 
G will mesh when G is moved to the left. The 
right hand end of shaft H is fastened to the 
universal joint that leads to the rear axle. 



Fig. 95 

Sliding Gear Set for Separate Mounting 
The operation is as follows: With the en¬ 
gine running and the clutch engaged, power 
is transmitted through gears B and C to the 
lower shaft of the transmission, and inasmuch 


as gear C is larger than B, the lower shaft 
will run at a lower rate of speed than the clutch 
shaft. If now the gear G be caused to mesh 
with E, the shaft H will be revolved but at a 
still lower rate of speed than the bottom shaft, 




















































































































198 


The Automobile Handbook 


and inasmuch as H drives the rear axle it will 
be seen that the mechanism has given a positive 
drive at a speed much below that of the engine. 



Heavy Duty Selective Sliding Gear for Rear Axle 

Mounting 

When it is desired to secure a higher speed 
of the car relative to that of the engine, gears 



































































































































The Automobile Handbook 


199 


G and E are withdrawn from each other and 
gear F is moved into engagement with D. It 
will be noted that gears D and F are approxi¬ 
mately the same size, and the upper shaft will 
then turn at a speed very nearly the same as 
that of the bottom shaft, but still less than 
the speed of the engine. This position is known 
as second speed or intermediate speed. 

When it is desired to secure a still higher 
ratio of speed it is done by moving gears D and 
F out of engagement and then moving F to 
the left. Gear F carries one-half of a jaw, or 
toothed clutch, and gear B carries the other 
half of this same clutch. It will thus be seen 
that when F and B are together the clutch will 
be engaged and shaft A will drive shaft H at 
the same speed at which A is revolving. This 
provides high speed or direct drive. 

When it is desired to reverse the direction of 
motion of the car, gear G is moved into engage¬ 
ment with an idler gear that is not shown, and 
this idler gear is driven through another one 
on the bottom shaft of the transmission. The 
idler gear being interposed between the upper 
and lower transmission shaft gears causes the 
upper shaft to reverse its previous direction 
of motion. 

Certain variations of selective sliding gears 
are in use, one of which is shown in Fig. 
97. In this particular form the spur gears 
remain in mesh at all times, but neither set 
is keyed to its shaft. Between the gears are 





The Automobile Handbook 


200 

) 

mounted jaw clutches, and these clutches are 
keyed to the shaft. In place of moving thf 
gears into or out of engagement, the ja\? 
clutches are moved, and depending on which 
clutch is moved and which way it is moved, 



Fig. 97 


Individual Jaw Clutch Sliding Gear Set 
the several sets of gears may be successively 

used, providing speed ratios similar to those 
in other forms of selective sliding gears. 

Transmission of Power—Efficiency of. 

Two-chain drive, from motor to speed-change 
gear, from speed-change gear to rear axle—75 
per cent. 

Quarter-turn or right-angle drive, with dou¬ 
ble-chain drive to free rear w r heels—70 per 
cent. 

Longitudinal shaft drive, with universal 
joints and bevel gear in differential case—65 
per cent. 

Gearless Transmission. This name has been 
applied to a wide variety of transmission, or 
change speed devices. It is quite customary to 






















































































































The Automobile Handbook 


201 


refer to the friction drive as a gearless system, 
and this is true to the extent of not using 
toothed gearing of any form. 

A car using this name was built several years 
ago, and its construction embodied a novel 
method of change speed mechanism. The trans¬ 
mission system of the gearless car made use of a 
central cone, long in proportion to its diameter, 
and faced with friction material. Placed so that 
they might engage with this driving member, 
were several sets of rollers, which were, in turn, 
brought into contact with driven members or 
clutches. The principle of operation was that 
of the planetary, or internal epicyclic, gear. In 
place of using toothed gears, this car secured its 
drive by bringing one or the other sets of rollers 
into play and thereby secured three forward 
speeds and one reverse. Large power was trans¬ 
mitted and little trouble found. 

Magnetic Transmission. 

The difference between a car with magnetic 
transmission and other gasoline cars lies only 
in this transmission. There is no change in the 
engine or its operation. There is no change 
in the driving parts, save as regards their con¬ 
nection with the power. The parts omitted 
are the clutch and the clutch pedal, geais and 
shifting lever, flywheel, starter and lighting sys¬ 
tem, this one transmission unit taking the place 
of all. There is no mechanical connection be¬ 
tween the engine and the driving shaft. This 





202 


The Automobile Handbook 



Fig. 98 

The Owen Magnetic Transmission 

















































































































































































































































The Automobile Handbook 


203 


control also embodies an electric brake, and an 
automatic electric sprag, which absolutely pre¬ 
vents the car backing down hill, even though 
the motor is stalled. Should the engine be 
stalled on a hill, the car can be held without 
use of the brakes by simply moving this con¬ 
trol lever into high speed position. 

The pow r er is never disconnected from the 
driving wheels of the car from the moment of 
starting up to the highest speed. 

The electrical apparatus consists of two units, 
Fig. 98, contained in a one-piece construc¬ 
tion : the one nearest to the engine has its mag¬ 
netic field pieces keyed to the engine crank¬ 
shaft and acts as a flywheel to the engine. Its 
armature is mounted on the propeller or drive 
shaft, hence it will be seen that both these parts 
can revolve. The second unit of the apparatus 
has stationary magnetic fields and its armature, 
as in the first case, is mounted on the propeller 
shaft. The first unit becomes in turn a 
dynamo, magnetic clutch and a motor, the sec¬ 
ond unit, a motor and dynamo. 

A controller, with resistance coils internally 
contained, is bolted to the chassis frame for¬ 
ward of the dash, alongside of the engine, and 
is operated by a lever on the steering wheel 
through a small gearing at the bottom end of 
the steering column. 

By placing the control lever in the position 
“cranking,” a battery is connected through 
the first unit, which in this instance becomes 






204 The Automobile Handbook 

a motor, and once the engine is cranked, the 
lever can be placed in the “neutral” position 
until ready to start the car. 

On moving the control lever to the first po¬ 
sition, turning effort is produced by weak¬ 
ening, with a shunt resistance, the field of 
the first unit, which becomes a dynamo, and 


B _c 




Ifiimi (! 

TT )U 

i 

A 


T» 


cr 

F 

■ ' 




c. 





9 £ 

::nnii 

3 


Fig. 99 

Principle of the Magnetic Transmission: A, En¬ 
gine Crankshaft. B, Revolving Field. C, Sta¬ 
tionary Field. D, Front Armature. E, Rear 
Armature. F, Propellor Shaft. 

the current generated, due to the electrical, 
slip between the magnetic fields and the arma¬ 
ture, is fed to the second unit, which, acting 
as a motor, produces a powerful starting torque. 
At the same time the pull of the magnetic fields 
of the first unit acts as a magnetic drag on its 
armature, and thus two forces assist in rotat¬ 
ing the propeller shaft, which, through the bevel 
drive, communicates power to the road wheels. 

The second position of the control lever cuts 
the resistance out of the first unit (dynamo) 
field and shunts through a high resistance some 
of the field current in the second unit (motor), 
thereby increasing the speed of the car. 

































































The Automobile Handbook 205 

In the third, fourth and fifth control lever 
positions, the second unit (motor) field is suc¬ 
cessively weakened until in the sixth control 
lever position, the field current is almost en¬ 
tirely shunted, so that previous to placing the 
control lever in the seventh (and last) position, 
the second unit is practically of itself not do¬ 
ing any work, apart from the fact that there 
is very little slippage between the first unit 
(dynamo) field and armature, resulting in gen¬ 
erating of but small current. In other words, 
the drive shaft is being carried around almost 
entirely by the magnetic drag of the first unit’s 
field on its armature. It will hence be seen that 
there is an electrical balance in effect through¬ 
out the entire sequence of operations. 

On placing the control lever in the seventh' 
position, the first unit becomes what may be 
termed a “magnetic clutch,” the armature 
and field are closed-circuited, and an almost 
negligible slip only is required to generate suf¬ 
ficient current to enable the field to drag its 
armature around with it. 

The second unit with the control lever in 
high speed* position becomes a generator, and 
when the car is running, charges the lighting 
and starting battery with a predetermined 
charge. 

From this point on the entire control is 
brought about by accelerating or decelerating 
the gas engine, the armature of the first unit 
follows its magnetic field promptly, generating 



206 


The Automobile Handbook 


of its own accord whenever necessary more cur¬ 
rent and hence getting more magnetic drag to 
bring it up to the same speed as the magnetic 
fields. Thus, so long as the control lever 
is in any position other than neutral on ac¬ 
celerating, an increase of speed is obtained, 
but on decelerating, the car coasts just like an 
ordinary car with the clutch released. This is 
brought about by the armature of the first unit 
traveling faster than the fields, and thus not 
generating any current until such a time as 
the car comes back to the speed, where the arm¬ 
ature of the first unit is traveling at the same 
or slightly lower speed than the field pieces 
or the engine, when again current is generated 
and the drive taken up as before. 

Should excessive grades be encountered where 
extra torque may be desired, the placing of the 
control lever in a lower position will give the 
desired result, and naturally by increasing the 
engine speed with the control lever in a lower 
position than high, more current will be gener¬ 
ated, due to the extra electrical slip, and thus 
give added torque. 

At neutral position the maximum electrical 
braking effect is obtained. Here the first unit is 
open-circuited and the second unit closed-cir- 
cuited and the magnetic braking reaction brakes 
the car to 10 miles per hour, below which speed 
the armature does not revolve within the motor 
field fast enough to create the braking effect, 
thus automatically holding the car on a grade at 
about the above speed. 


The Automobile Handbook 207 

Chassis. The word chassis since its adoption 
into the English language, is taken to mean the 
frame, springs, wheels, transmission and in fact 
all mechanism except the automobile body. In 
its original French it does not mean all this, but 
is strictly restricted to mean the frame, or the 
frame and springs. 

Chauffeur. This term when literally trans¬ 
lated means the stoker or fireman of a boiler. 
The use of the word has been extended to the 
operator of a motor car, but does not usually re¬ 
fer to the paid driver, who is generally known 
as the mechanician or mechanic. 

Clutch. Clutches may be classified as fol¬ 
lows : a, cone; b, disc; c, band; cone clutches 
may, in turn, be subdivided as follows: a, metal 
to metal; b, leather faced; c, cork insert; while 
disc type may be classed as: a, leather faced; 
b, multiple disc; c, cork insert; and band 
clutches may be put down as of the a, constrict¬ 
ing, b, spiral, or c, expanding types. Clutches, 
of whatever Type or class, have but one prime 
object, i.e., to enable the operator to start and 
stop the car without having to stop the motor. 
There is a secondary consideration, if we take 
into account the fact that it is convenient to be 
able to slip the clutch, on occasion. Some types 
lend themselves to this secondary purpose with 
greater facility than others, and it is also true 
that some clutches are most easy of application, 
all things considered. 

As clutches are at present designed, the ques¬ 
tion is, can slipping be tolerated? or, can 


208 


The Automobile Handbook 


/ 


clutches be slipped to control the speed of a 
car? It is believed not. The average clutch 
has very little of the character of the average 
braking system, and when it comes to brakes 
they do not last so long that it is desirable to 
wear them out sooner than they will naturally 
need replacement. In other words, it seems 
quite out of the question to consider the 
clutches of today as suitable for the double pur¬ 
pose of clutching and speed controlling, by way 
of slipping the clutch at will. It is not uncom¬ 
mon to hear autoists talking of the multiple 
disc clutch as one that undergoes little or no 
deterioration as a result of continuous slipping 
under variations of load. 

They seem to think that the large surface ex¬ 
posed, especially in view of the fact that the 
discs are submerged in oil, will prevent damage 
if the clutch is caused to slip. They forget that 
the discs are thin, and also that they are loose 
on the splines, keys, or feathers that prevent 
the discs from rotating. No member keyed onto 
a shaft will stand much abuse. This is espe¬ 
cially so, if the member has but little bearing 
surface on the key. Even a considerable num¬ 
ber of such members working in unison will 
fail to stand up under the work because the 
joint is not firm. Lost motion is bound to re¬ 
sult in more lost motion in a short while, and 
in a multiple disc clutch the discs soon fray out 
and interfere with each other, and with the 
clutching functions, within a space of time so 




The Automobile Handbook 


209 


short as to surprise even those most experi¬ 
enced in the use of this type. 

Band Clutch. A band, or friction ring, 
clutch, is shown in Fig. 100. The wheel which 
is connected to one of the shafts.is shown at a, 
and the band, or ring which is connected to the 
other shaft and which is made in two parts, is 
shown at b and c. At d and e are curved arms 



pivoted at f and g. The links h and i connect 
these curved arms to the parts b and c of the 
band. By means of a fork, and tapered sleeve, 
not shown, the ends j and k of the arms are 
forced apart when the clutch is brought into 
use. This throws toward the shaft the ends 1 
and m of the levers d and e, and brings the two 
parts b and c of the clutch ring in contact with 













210 


The Automobile Handbook 


the friction or driving surface of the wheel a, 
which is thereby forced to turn with the driving 
shaft. The band clutch has had many expo¬ 
nents in the motor car art, but is open to cen¬ 
trifugal effects to such an extent that it re¬ 
quires considerable ingenuity to overcome trou¬ 
bles arising therefrom. At high engine speeds 
the operating levers have been so arranged as 
to lower the normal expanding pressure. 



Fig. 101 


Cone Clutch. There are a number of modi¬ 
fications of this type of clutch, the general prin¬ 
ciples of which are illustrated in Fig. 101. The 
flywheel a is secured to the shaft b by means 
of bolts through the web of the wheel. At c is 
an expansion ring into which the friction cone 
d fits. The helical spring e holds the cone 
against the expansion ring with the required 







































The Automobile Handbook 


211 


amount of force. At f is a ball bearing that 
takes the end thrust when the cone is pulled 
away from the expansion ring. 

The arms g are coupled to the shaft that turns 
with the friction cone. Ordinarily the two parts 
of the clutch are held together by the pressure 
of the spring, and when it is desired to discon¬ 
nect the cone, a foot pedal is forced down so 
as to act on a fork and sleeve and pull the cone 



away from the expansion ring. When the pedal 
is released, spring e forces the clutch into action 

again. 

Fig. 102 is a sectional view of a form ot 
leather faced cone clutch in which the male part 
of the cone moves axially toward the engine. 
Fig. 103 shows a clutch constructed on the 
same principle, but in place of having one 
strong actuating spring surrounding the axis, 
it has three weaker spiral springs near the pe- 




























212 


The Automobile Handbook 


ripliery of the male member. Fig. 104 is a verti¬ 
cal section of a clutch suitable for a 50 H. P. 
car. The cone angle is 13 degrees, and the di¬ 
ameter 16 inches, with a total frictional area of 
128 square inches, the axial pressure resulting 
from the spring being 375 lbs. A small spiral 
plunger spring A under the leather face B 
causes it to pick up the load more quietly and 
smoothly. Fig. 105 illustrates an early form 
of clutch intended for a car of about 20 H. P. 
One form of toggle joint is also shown at A. 



Fig. 103 


This clutch also has multi-springs for creating 
the proper frictional contact, and a peculiar 
form of spring application simple in the ex¬ 
treme. A multi-cone clutch is shown in section 
in Fig. 106. Its action is as follows: When the 
clutch engages, the smallest cone seizes first, 
commences to revolve and subjects the spiral 
springs between the next two clutches to tor¬ 
sional movement, which draws them together 
and brings the two outer cones into action; the 
idea being that the small clutch shall slip, tend 














The Automobile Handbook 


213 


to accelerate tlie car, that the medium clutch 
shall behave in a similar manner and that when 
the large clutch comes into play the three com¬ 
bined pick up the load and move the car. 

The so-called inverted cone is well illustrated 



in figure 107. The reversed cone is contained 
in an extension A, built onto the flywheel B. 
When the cone is disengaged it moves toward 
the engine, exactly reversing the action of the 
foregoing type. This, clutch has its adherents. 















































































214 


The Automobile Handbook 


and it is a good one, differing very slightly, if 
properly assembled, in its efficiency from" the 
direct-acting cone. It may be kept free from 

dirt and oil much more perfectly than in the 
other form. 

Disk Clutch. A clutch of the multiple-disc 
type is shown in Pig. 108. A two-arm spider 
a, keyed to the shaft b, serves to hold in place a 
number of metal discs c, betw'een which are 
other metal plates d held on the sleeve e by 
means of a key f. The sleeve e is in turn keyed 



to the shaft g and to it is screwed a mm h 
laving three pairs of lugs carrying three levers i 
v ith rollers j at their outer ends, as shown. The 
other ends of the three levers press against the 
plate k when the clutch is engaged bv an in¬ 
ward movement of the collar 1, plate k being 
free to move along the key f. Discs c are free 
to move longitudinally on the arms of the spi¬ 
der a, and also on sleeve e, around which they 
rotate when the clutch is out of engagement; 
but the arms of the spider, fitting into slots in 
the discs, cause them to rotate with the shaft b. 





































The Automobile Handbook 


215 


The plates d are free to move longitudinally on 
the key f in the sleeve e; and since the sleeve is 
keyed to the shaft g, it is evident that, when 
in engagement with the discs c, the plates d 
must cause the shaft g to turn with the shaft b. 
The discs c and plates d run in an oil bath, 



obviating wear of the plates and discs. These 
are brought together forcibly by throwing the 
cone faced end of the collar 1 against the rollers 
j, thereby causing the ends of the three levers i 
to press the plates and discs together with suf¬ 
ficient force to cause the shafts b and g to rotate 
as one shaft. 


































216 


The Automobile Handbook 


Five-plate Clutch. In the matter of the num¬ 
ber of plates in the disc clutch there is no agree¬ 
ment between designers. Some use a very large 
number of thin plates, as many as fifty or sixty, 
and others use a very small number, as few as 
six or eight; in fact, it may be said that the sin¬ 
gle disc clutch, which has only two frictional 



Fig. 108 

Five-Plate Clutch 

surfaces, is the lower limit. One arrangement 
which uses five plates is shown in Fig. 108. The 
diameter of the clutch is somewhat smaller 
than that of the single or three-plate types, but 
its diameter must be quite large in order to 
transmit considerable horse power. 

Clutches are made with various numbers of 
plates, from three to more than sixty, depending 
on the work required and the size and material 















































































The Automobile Handbook 


217 


of which the plates are made. Plate materials 
include hardened steel for both members, steel 
and bronze, steel with cork inserts, and steel 
covered with some friction material similar to 
brake lining. 

Disc clutches using steel to steel are operated 
in a bath of oil. Those using bronze and steel 
may or may not operate in oil. As a general 
rule, clutches that are not enclosed are fitted 
with cork or an asbestos composition as the fric¬ 
tion material. However, either of the forms just 
mentioned operate satisfactorily in an oil bath, 
and it is, therefore, simply a question of choice 
with the designer. Unenclosed clutches are 
called “dry-plate clutches.” 

Clutch Troubles. One of the greatest 
sources of trouble for the novice lies in the 
clutch. This may be just right, it may be slip¬ 
ping, or it may be what is called fierce. The sec¬ 
ond manifests itself in such pleasant situations- 
as climbing a hill when, with the engine run¬ 
ning at its highest speed and the proper gear 
engaged, the car starts to run backward instead 
of forward. Or on the level, with the engine 
racing and the high gear in, no speed results. 

The last condition shows itself in the sudden 
jumping forward of the car when the clutch 
has been let in, or it may even be so severe as 
to shear off the bevel driving gear when used 
with studded non-skid tires or any form that 
will not slip easily. 

To repair the first, look at the leather, if this 


218 


The Automobile Handbook 


is all in good shape with an apparently good 
surface, but has lubricating oil on it, wash the 
surface well with gasoline. It is not a bad idea 
to roughen the surface of the leather a little 
with a coarse file. 

The harsh or fierce clutch is remedied by the 
application of a proper oil for this purpose. 
Castor oil is universally used and a good way is 
to soak the complete clutch in it over night. 
This will cure a case of harsh leather, but it 
may be that the trouble is only a lack of adjust¬ 
ment of spring tension. Usually there is an ad¬ 
justing nut and a locking nut. Back off the 
latter and make an adjustment. Then tighten 
the lock nut to retain it. Bor the beginner, it 
is better to adjust a little at a time and make 
several successive jobs of it than to try to do 
it all at once. But always adjust it as soon as 
possible. 

-The leather of the ordinary cone clutch by 
degiees acquires a sort of coarse surface glaze, 
which may or may not represent actual charr¬ 
ing of the leather, but is certainly\ due to the 
slipping it experiences. A leather with its sur¬ 
face so glazed has a very harsh action, since the 
surface is so hard that it grips all at once. The 
glazed surface wull not absorb oil to any appre¬ 
ciable extent, a fact which is easily seen on at¬ 
tempting to dent the surface with a thumb nail 
after giving the oil time to soak in. In this con¬ 
dition the best thing to do is to put on a new 
leather. Unless the angle of the cone is too 




The Automobile Handbook 


219 


abrupt, a piece of ordinary belting* will serve 
the purpose, provided it is of uniform thickness 
throughout. The belting may be soaked in 
neatsfoot oil over night before applying, and 
this will render it pliable enough to take the 
shape of the cone. If the old leather is retained 
in service it becomes almost essential to squirt 
a little oil on it every day or two, as otherwise 
it may take hold with such a jerk as to endan¬ 
ger the transmission shafts. If the cone re¬ 
leases by drawing backward, there are proba¬ 
bly openings in the web of the cone through 
which the spout of a squirt can may enter. Oil 
squirted into the flywheel interior will then 
quickly find its way to the clutch surface. 
Sooner or later, however, the leather will be¬ 
come glazed so smooth that it will not hold at 
all, and it is then liable to slip and burn up 
without warning. There are few things more 
exasperating than a clutch which cannot be 
made to hold properly, particularly when the 
car happens to be covering a bad stretch on 
which every available bit of power that can be 
transmitted to the rear wheels is necessary. The 
use of emergency remedies under such circum¬ 
stances most often leads to the necessity for 
clutch repairs, as road dirt and grit are not the 
best things possible for the leather facing, and 
frequently no other friction producing com¬ 
pound is to be had at the time. 

Renewal of Leather on Cone Clutch. Re¬ 
move the old feather by cutting off the rivets 


220 The Automobile Handbook 

on the underside, and driving the rivets through 
to the outside. Keep the old leather and use 
it as a pattern by which to cut the new piece. 
It will be much better, however, to purchase 
from the factory a new leather of the proper 
width and thickness. As a new leather will 
have considerable “give,” it must be stretched 
tightly over the cone. First cut one end of the 
leather square and fasten it to the cone with 
two rivets. The other end should not be cut at 
this stage of the work, but brought around to 
meet the fastened end, and, after tightly 
stretching it over the small end of the cone, 
fasten it with a single rivet. Then force the 
leather up onto the cone, drill out and counter¬ 
sink the holes and rivet up securely. The only 
knack in the operation is to keep the leather 
tight that it may be a snug fit on the cone. A 
loose leather will, naturally, be a dead failure. 
After the leather has been forced into its place 
the uncut end should be trimmed to make a 
good joint. Any unevenness may be trued up 
with a file. The new leather will readily ab¬ 
sorb several applications of castor oil before it 
becomes smooth and pliable. 

Care should be taken that the rivet heads are 
countersunk below the surface of the leather. 
In case they work flush, owing to the wearing 
down of the leather face, they should be riv¬ 
eted. The “biting” or jerky action of a cone 
clutch may often be traced to the rivets work¬ 
ing out, and this will frequently prevent the 


The Automobile Handbook 


221 


clutch from being readily disengaged. Rerivet¬ 
ing will prove an effective remedy in this case, 
and considerable additional service may be had 
from the leather before it wears down to the 
rivet heads. 

The oil used in multiple disc clutch housings 
should be changed at frequent intervals. The 
same lubricant as used in the engine is suitable 
for warm weather driving, while for cold weather 
the oil may be diluted by the addition of one- 
fourth to one-third kerosene to avoid dragging. 
The clutch housing should be filled to a point 
a little below the center line of the shaft. 

Dry disc clutches require little care other than 
being kept reasonably free from dirt and accu¬ 
mulations of grease and oil. Their thrust release 
bearings should be given regular attention and 
kept properly lubricated with cup grease or 
heavy oils. 

Compression. Normal compression in any 
given design of motor would be the compres¬ 
sion (cold) fixed by the designer by the rela¬ 
tion of the sweep of the piston to the clearance 
space. Normal compression is not the same, as 
measured in pounds per square inch, in all mo¬ 
tors. The normal compression as against loss 
of compression would be evident to a motorist 
in the act of cranking. Were the compression 
to become abnormal, as a result of carbon de¬ 
posit, it would be rendered manifest by knock¬ 
ing on a gradient, or by way of pre-ignition. 

Compression, How to Calculate. The com- 


222 


The Automobile Handbook 


pression in atmospheres of a motor may be read¬ 
ily found by dividing the cubic contents of the 
piston displacement by the cubic contents of 
the combustion chamber in cubic inches, and 
then adding one to the result. 

To ascertain the compression in atmospheres 
of a motor, when the cubic contents of the com¬ 
bustion chamber are known: Let S be the 
stroke of the piston in inches and A the area of 
the cylinder in square inches. If C be the con¬ 
tents of the combustion chamber in cubic inches 
and N the required compression in atmospheres, 
then 

S’ X A 

N = - + 1 

C 

Example: Find the compression in atmos¬ 
pheres of a motor of 4-inch bore and 6-inch 
stroke, whose combustion chamber has a capac¬ 
ity of 18 cubic inches. 

Answer: Six multiplied by 12.56 equals 

75.36, which divided by 18 gives 4.19, and 4.19 
plus 1 equals 5.19, or the compression in at¬ 
mospheres required. One atmosphere = 14.75. 

If it is desired to ascertain the compression 
in atmospheres of a motor, the combustion 
chamber of which is of such shape that its di¬ 
mensions cannot be accurately calculated, its 
cubic contents may be found by filling the com¬ 
bustion chamber with water, and after remov¬ 
ing the water, ascertaining its weight in ounces, 



The Automobile Handbook 


223 


and then multiplying the result by 1.72. This 
gives the capacity of the combustion chamber 
in cubic inches. The compression of the motor 
can then be readily calculated from the for¬ 
mula given herewith. 

Compression, How to Test for Leaks in. To 
discover if there are any leaks in the compres¬ 
sion of a gasoline motor, a small pressure gauge 
reading up to 75 pounds should be fitted into 
the spark plug opening in the combustion 
chamber by means of a reducing bushing. When 
turning the starting crank of the motor slowly 
the gauge should indicate at least 60 pounds 
per square inch if the compression is in good 

condition. 

% 

To test for leaks, fill a small oil can with 
soapy water and squirt round every joint where 
there may be a possible chance for leakage. Get 
an assistant to turn the crank and watch for 
bubbles at the joints. 

If the joints are all tight, next examine the 
condition of the admission and exhaust-valves 
and if either of them needs regrinding, it 

should be done, first with fine emery powder 

• 

and oil, then finished with tripoli and water. 

When the valves have been ground to a per¬ 
fect fit, if the compression still leaks, the pis¬ 
ton rings should be examined, as the trouble 
will be found to be with them. 

Condenser, Use of. A condenser is used in 
connection with a Rumkorff, or jump-spark 
form of induction coil to take up or absorb the 


224 


The Automobile Handbook 


static charge of electricity, occasioned by the 
self-induction, or electrical reaction in the pri¬ 
mary winding of the coil upon the breaking of 
the battery circuit by the interrupter or vibra¬ 
tor. This static charge is given up or dis- 



Fig. 109 
Condenser 

charged into the primary winding of the coil 
along with the battery current upon the closing 
of the circuit, thus intensifying the action of 
the secondary winding of the coil in a great de¬ 
gree. 

By absorbing the static charge of electricity 




















































































































The Automobile Handbook 


225 


the condenser helps to decrease the spark or arc 
between the platinum contact points of the in¬ 
terrupter or vibrator, thereby lengthening the 
life of the platinum contacts by reducing the 
erosive action of the induced current spark. A 
jump-spark coil very often refuses to work 
properly on account of the condenser connec¬ 
tions having become loose. 

The capacity of a condenser is directly pro¬ 
portional to the area of the tinfoil sheets com¬ 
posing it, to the distance between the sheets, 
and to the inductive capacity of the dielectric, 
or separating medium. 

In condenser work it is the custom to cut the 
tin-foil sheets to some convenient rectangular 
shape, as shown in Fig. 112, each one with a 
neck so that all the + sheets can be soldered to¬ 
gether, on one side, and all the — sheets on the 
other. The dielectric paper is cut without 
necks, so that the necks of the tin-foil sheets 
can be readily contacted with each other, in 
such a way, however, that the + sheets will 
not contact with the — sheets at any point. 
The paper is 1 inch wider than the tin-foil, so 
that the paper extends out for % inch all 
around, and beyond the tin-foil. In the illus¬ 
tration the top sheet of paper is removed to 
show the shape of the tin-foil sheets, and it will 
be observed that all the tin-foil sheets are of 
the same size, but they are so turned that the + 
sheets have their necks all to one side, while 
the — sheets have all their necks to the other 


226 


The Automobile Handbook 


.side. Any number of sheets can be used, with 
the understanding that a sheet of oil-paper will 
be placed between adjacent tin-foil sheets, so 
.that the -|- and — sheets will not contact with 
each other at any point.. 

If the paper is pierced, or if the -f- and — tin- 
foil sheets contact with each other, the con¬ 
denser will fail to perform its functions, and it 
sometimes happens that the sheets are punc¬ 
tured in service, thus rendering the condenser 
valueless for the intended purpose until the 
puncture is repaired, to do which requires that 
the fault be found, and a new sheet of paper 
substituted. 

Condensers are made to fit into housings that 
allow of ready application on the instrument 
with which they are used. In many cases it is 
desirable to use a cylindrical form, while in 
others a rectangular outline may be permissible. 
Condensers of unusual form are often made from 
two long strips of tin foil, laid one upon the 
other, and separated by waxed paper or other 
insulating material. The long strip is then 
rolled or folded into the shape that is desired 
and the ends of the foil are attached to the con¬ 
denser terminals. 

A punctured or faulty condenser will cause 
the spark to be very weak and will also cause 
quite violent arcing at the breaker contacts, this 
arcing burning and pitting the contacts until 
they can no longer carry the current. The con¬ 
denser connections must alwavs be secure. 


Tlie Automobile Handbook 


227 


Conductivity and Resistance. The following 

table shows the relative ability of various metals 
to conduct electricity and heat: 


Heat Electricity 


Silver. 

. 100 

100 

Copper... 

. 74 

99 

Aluminum. 

. 38 

63 

Brass . 

. 23 

22 

Zinc . 

. 19 

29 

Tin . 

. 14 

15 

Wrought Iron . 

. 12 

16 

Steel.. 

. 11.5 

12 

Cast Iron .. 

. 11 

12 

Bronze. 

. 9 

7 

Lead. 

. 8 

9 


It will be seen that, in general, the conductiv¬ 
ity of a metal for either heat or electricity is in 
about the same relative proportion; that is, a 
good conductor of one is usually a good con¬ 
ductor of the other. 

A list of commonly used insulators with their 
relative ability to withstand electrical pressure 
is given below: 


Rubber, hard .... 100 


Paper, oiled. 100 

Mica . 92 

Cloth, oiled . 80 

Rubber, india ... 72 

Celluloid. 64 

Porcelain . 48 


Wax .. 

46 

Paraffin. 

46 

Rosin. 

40 

Glass . 

32 

Linen .... 

26 

IjclVcl «••••♦•*••• 

24 

Paper . 

20 


























228 


The Automobile Handbook 


Cooling Systems. The cooling of a gasoline, 
or other automobile engine may seem a simple 
thing to the uninitiated, but in reality it is far 
from that and it is a fact that the deeper one 
goes into it, the more complex the situation be¬ 
comes. 

The cooling of internal combustion engines, 
in which category automobile engines come, is 
divided into two classes, viz., air cooled and 
liquid cooled. There are two reasons for cool¬ 
ing the cylinder walls. One is to permit of 
proper lubrication, and the other is to prevent 
pre-ignition. But it is advisable to allow the 
cylinder to work at as high a temperature as 
the lubricating oil will stand without carboniz¬ 
ing. The nearer the cylinder temperature can 
be kept to 350 degrees the more efficient will 
the motor be, speaking from the thermal stand¬ 
point, while on the other hand, mechanical effi¬ 
ciency may be sacrificed by too high tempera¬ 
tures. Therefore, a balance between the two 
should be established, and this course is usually 
pursued in practice. 

Air-Cooled Automobile Engines. The suc¬ 
cessful air oooling of an engine cylinder de¬ 
pends chiefly on an abundant flow of cool air 
over it. Some cylinders, however, are arranged 
to utilize a more rapid flow than others. Gen¬ 
erally speaking, the designer can take his choice 
between a comparatively plain cylinder surface 
over which a current of air can flow almost un¬ 
checked, and a cylinder with its heat-radiating 


The Automobile Handbook 


229 


surface greatly multiplied by numerous pins, 
deep ribs, or other projections. These projec¬ 
tions increase greatly the radiating surface, but 
tend to obstruct the flow of air, although they 
aid in carrying away the heat. In the latter 
case, the velocity of the air stream does not 
need to be high, provided it is continuous; while 
in the former case, a constant and abundant 
supply of air is essential. 

Air-Cooling Systems. In modern automobile 
practice two systems of cooling are used—the 
air system and the water system, each of which 
has its adherents. As its name indicates, the 
air cooling system allows the air to strike the 
exterior of the engine cylinder, and thus carry 
off the excess of heat generated within it. To 
give the radiating surface, required for air 
cooling, the exteriors of the cylinders are either 
grooved or corrugated, or the surface of the cyl¬ 
inder is studded with metal pins or fins, so as to 
present as much surface to the outside air as 
possible. The object in the construction of all 
air-cooled motors is to make their external sur¬ 
faces offer as great a surface to the air as pos¬ 
sible, and to furnish these surfaces with as large 
a supply as possible. A fan is therefore used, 
driven by the engine itself, which constantly 
directs a current of fresh, unheated air upon 

the surface of the cylinder. 

The Franklin principle of air cooling is shown 
in Figure 110 and the details of the engine and 
air jacket construction are shown in figure 111. 


230 


The Automobile Handbook 


The engine cylinders are fitted with vertical 
ribs and outside of these ribs is placed a sheet 
metal jacket. Air is taken in through the top of 
the jacket and passes down along the outside 
of the cylinders between the ribs, issuing from 
the bottom. 

Cool air enters through the front of the engine 
hood and passes to a compartment above the 
cylinders, this upper compartment being sepa¬ 
rated from the lower space by a sheet metal 
plate which fits tightly between the hood and 



Franklin Air Cooling 

the jackets around the several cylinders. The 
only outlet for the air is then through the spaces 
around the engine cylinders, by means of which 

it passes to the lower compartment under the 
hood. 

From the lower compartment the air is 
exhausted by means of a turbine type of fan 
built as a part of the engine flywheel. Exhaus¬ 
tion of the heated air results in a continual flow 
through the cooling system at the rate of about 










The Automobile Handbook 


231 


2200 cubic feet per minute at ordinary car 
speeds. 

It will be noted that none of the heated air 
from one cylinder touches any other cylinder, 
the t^tal volume of entering air being divided 



between the whole number of jackets in a fairly 
even flow. This system of cooling has been used 
on the Franklin car for a number of years and 
gives excellent results. 














































































































232 The Automobile Handbook 

Cooling 1 , Water System of. The water cool¬ 
ing system includes the jackets around the upper 
parts of the cylinders and valve pockets, a radi¬ 
ator by means of which the heated water is 
cooled with a flow of air, a fan for maintaining 
the required air stream, a means for causing a 
circulation of water through the parts, either 
a pump or a natural thermo-syphon action, and 
the piping required to complete the water circuit. 

Water Circulation. There are two systems 
of water circulation in use for cooling the cylin¬ 
ders of explosive motors: The natural or ther¬ 
mo-siphon system and the forced water circu¬ 
lation. 

In natural or thermo-siphon water circula¬ 
tion the fact that cold water is heavier than hot 
water is taken advantage of. A head of water 
is obtained by placing the tank above the level 
of the cylinder water-jacket, and as the water 
in the jacket is heated by the combustion, the 
cooler water from the tank flows in, forcing the 
heated water in the tank to take its place, and 
in this manner an automatic circulation of wa¬ 
ter is set up. The pipes must be so arranged 
that they offer every facility for the free cir¬ 
culation of the water, the cold water leaving 
through a pipe at the bottom of the tank and 
entering at the lowest point of the cylinder, 
while the hot water leaves the top of the cylin¬ 
der and enters the tank at the side near the 
top. The water circulation, though automatic, 
is very slow, and for this reason requires a 


The Automobile Handbook 


233 



Fig. 112 

larger body of water to produce as good a cool¬ 
ing effect as a forced circulation. 

In forced circulation a rotary pump is used, 


































































234 The Automobile Handbook 

the direction of the flow being such that the 
water passes from the pump to the cylinder, 
thence to the radiator, on to the tank, and then 
through the pump again, thus completing its 
circuit. The water in this way gets the maxi¬ 
mum cooling effect from the radiator, and the 
body of water in the tank is kept cool. On ac¬ 
count of the high speed of a gasoline automo¬ 
bile motor, and the comparatively small amount 
of power required to circulate the water, ro¬ 
tary pumps are much used. As there are no 
valves to get out of order, and high speed is 
obtainable, this type of pump is very suitable 
for automobile use. 

In order that a thermo-syphon system may 
operate successfully, it is absolutely essential 
that the water passages around the cylinders, as 
well as the connections to the radiator, be of 
large capacity and perfectly free from obstruc¬ 
tions. Sharp bends should be avoided in every 
case. 

Pump, Water. The circulating pump is 
used in the belief that it affords a means for 
regulating the temperature of the jacket water 
supply, which would not always be the case 
with a thermal-syphon system. Such is not the 
case, as the pump, being driven direct from the 
motor, operates at a speed which varies with 
the motor speed. On starting the motor, it 
pumps cold water into the jacket. It pumps 
slowly, at slow speeds, although the motor may 
be taking a full charge and heating rapidly. It 


The Automobile Handbook 


235 


pumps fast at high speeds, although the wind 
pressure and its consequent cooling effect may 


WATER COOLING 




1 p 

Li 


r 

{If 



i 

1 








1 - 








j 

LI 






Fig. 113 

Top: Water Circulation 
Center: Centrifugal Pump 
Bottom, left: Tubular Radiator 
Bottom, right: Cellular Radiator 
































































































































































































256 


The Automobile Handbook 


be very great. If a circulating pump could be 
used in connection with a device to control the 
regulation of the motor temperature, the results 
would be more satisfactory. 

Pumps—Centrifugal. In this type of pump 
the height of lift is governed by the tangential 
force. Owing to this fact centrifugal pumps for 
use on automobiles may be made of aluminum 
for the housing, as it is both light and strong, 
fully able to withstand the pressure, there being 
no rubbing surfaces. The wheel, however, 
should be made of phosphor bronze of a good 
grade. In these pumps the suction inlet is 
usually at one side surrounding the axis, see 
Fig. 113. The pump should be geared to a speed 
as high if not higher than the crankshaft speed. 
The minimum peripheral velocity of the pump 
wheel should be 500 feet per minute. For au¬ 
tomobile service the general rule is to have a 
three vane wheel, and the curving is away from 
the direction of rotation. 

Overheating—Causes of. Overheating of the 
engine, when not traced to poor circulation, is 
almost always caused by too much gasoline. 
There are, however, many possible causes of 
over rich mixture, some of which on the 
face of them might seem to be causes of lean 
mixture rather than rich. Prominent among 
these latter is too low a gasoline level in the 
float chamber due to the float valve closing too 
soon. The immediate effect of this is to make 
the mixture too lean at starting, and at low 


The Automobile Handbook 


237 


speeds. Starting is therefore difficult, and if 
the auxiliary air valve begins to open at the 
usual motor speed, the mixture will again be 
much too lean. These symptoms, however, un¬ 
less properly interpreted will probably lead the 
owner to increase the gasoline supply, or to ad 
just the spring tension of the auxiliary valve so 
that the latter will not open until quite high 
speed is attained. In other words, he adjusts 
to give a suitable mixture at one speed, and at 
other speeds the mixture is extravagantly over 
rich. It is well not to be too easily satisfied 
with the carbureter’s performance, as it may 
be found that one fault such as the above has 
been imperfectly offset by another fault in the 
other direction instead of the correct adjust¬ 
ment being made where the fault really lies. A 
good carbureter will give a sensibly correct 
mixture at all speeds within the ordinary range 
of the engine. If it fails to do this the thing to 
do is to investigate until the trouble is found. 

Insufficient lubrication increases the friction 
between the piston and cylinder, and so gener¬ 
ates extra heat. Bad or unsuitable oil may 
have the same effect. 

Wear of the cams, tappets and valve stems 
may be the cause of overheating, as it would 
not require much loss from the faces of the va¬ 
rious moving parts that come in contact to 
cause a more or less appreciable difference in 
the operation of the valves, and as this wear 
tends to bring about a later action, it may be 


238 


The Automobile Handbook 


sufficient in the case of the exhaust valve to 
retain the burnt charge considerably beyond 
the time at which it should be allowed to es¬ 
cape. Where a motor runs at a speed of 800 
revolutions per minute or over, it will be evi¬ 
dent that it is a matter of very small fractions 
of a second. 

Another cause of overheating may be the de¬ 
posit of a fine film of scale on the inside of the 
circulating pipes and radiator. This scale is of 
a mineral nature, and, in addition to being an 
excellent nonconductor of heat, it is deposited 
in such intimate contact with the metal that the 
latter is practically insulated and its radiating 
power entirely lost. 

Overheating—Effects of. The immediate 
effect of overheating is to burn up the oil in the 
cylinders, or crank case. This causes a smell 
of burning, and an ordor of hot metal. There is 
sometimes a slight smoke and the motor will 
make a knocking sound. The cooling water be¬ 
gins to steam, and the car will gradually slow 
down and finally stop. 

The most serious cause of a stoppage on the 
road is overheating, which causes the lubricat¬ 
ing oil to burn up and the piston to expand and 
grip or seize in the cylinder. 

Overheating—Remedies for. As soon as any 
of the above symptoms are noticed: 

The motor should be stopped at once. 

Kerosene should be copiously injected into 




The Automob He Handbook 239 

the cylinders and the motor turned by hand to 
free the piston-rings. 

The parts should theyi be allowed to cool. 

Do not pour cold water on the cylinder jack¬ 
ets, for fear of cracking them, but pour the wa¬ 
ter into the tank so as to warm the water before 
it reaches the cylinder jackets. 

A simple test in the case of an overheated 
motor is to let a few drops of water fall on the 
head of the cylinder. If it sizzles for a few mo¬ 
ments the overheating is not bad, but if the 
water at once turns into steam, the case is seri¬ 
ous. 

After the parts are cool, it will be advisable 
to put some oil in each cylinder. 

Anti-Freezing Mixtures. If a solution of al¬ 
cohol and water is used, the best results will be 
obtained by having it just strong enough to 
stand the lowest temperature to which it is 
likely to be subjected in the climate where it 
is to be used. 

The reason for this is that the alcohol evapo¬ 
rates out from the solution, and the stronger the 
solution, the more there is to evaporate, the 
easier it evaporates, and the greater the influ¬ 
ence of this evaporation upon the solution left. 

The diagram shown on page 33 indicates the 
freezing points of various solutions of dena¬ 
tured alcohol, also of wood alcohol. From this 
diagram a solution may be selected which will 
stand any temperature from 50° below zero to 
40° above. 


240 


The Automobile Handbook 


Other solutions may be made with calcium 
chloride (common salt), also the salts known as 
potassium carbonate. These with water form a 
solution that will stand zero temperatures, but 
are not available where lower temperatures are 
common. 



Non-Freezing Mixtures for Radiators. In 
cold weather, the circulating water, the oil, 
and the carbureter require special attention. 
If the car is to be run regularly during 





























The Automobile Handbook 241 

the winter, it is advisable to use a non- 
freezing mixture in the water-jacket. If the 
car is not to be used regularly, it may not 
be necessary to employ such a mixture, but in 
that case great care is necessary to prevent the 
water from freezing unexpectedly. If the car 
is kept in a barn, the water should be drawn 
off completely after the car has been used, and 
the drainage cock should be so located and the 
piping so arranged that there are no water 
pockets in which the water may freeze and ob¬ 
struct the circulation. If the water freezes in 
the pump, the latter is likely to be broken when 
the car is started the next morning. If water 
freezes in the water-jackets, it will burst the 
jackets unless they are made of copper. When 
the car is left standing for an hour or so, cloths 


Proportions of Glycerine, Alcohol and 

Water. 


Freezing 1 

Point 

Glycerine and 
Alcohol (equal parts) 


Water 

28° above 

15% • 


85% 

15° above 

20% / 


80% 

10° above 

24% 


76% 

5° above 

28% 


72% 

Zero 

30% 


70% 

5° below 

33% 


67% 

10® below 

36% 


64% 



242 


The Automobile Handbook 


or lap robes may be thrown over the radiator 
to check the cooling; this is cheaper and safer 
than leaving the motor running. 

The two substances most used to prevent 
freezing are glycerine and calcium chloride. A 
30-per-cent solution of glycerine in water 
freezes at 21° F.; and a solution of one part of 
glycerine to two parts of water is safe from 
freezing at 10° or 15° F.; 40-per-cent solution 
freezes at zero. A small amount of slaked lime 
should be added to neutralize any acidity in the 
solution. Glycerine has the objection that it 
destroys rubber, and the solution fouls rather 
quickly. 

A cheaper mixture, and one preferable where 
the temperatures encountered are likely to be 
below 15° or 20° F., is a solution of calcium 
chloride. This must be carefully distinguished 
from chloride of lime (bleaching powder), 
which is injurious to metal surfaces. Calcium 
chloride costs about 8 cents a pound in bulk, 
and does not materially affect metals except 
zinc. A saturated solution is first made by add¬ 
ing about 15 pounds of the chloride to 1 gallon 
of water, making a total of about 2 gallons. 
Some undissolved crystals should remain at 
the bottom as evidence that the solution is sat¬ 
urated. To this solution is added from 2 to 3 
gallons of water, the former making what is 
called a 50-per-cent, solution. A little lime is 
added to neutralize acidity. A 50-per-cent so¬ 
lution freezes at —15° F. 


The Automobile Handbook 


243 


Whether glycerine or calcium chloride is 
used, loss by evaporation should be made up by 
adding pure water, and loss through leakage by 
adding fresh solution. In using the chloride, 
it is important to prevent the solution from ap¬ 
proaching the point of saturation, as the chlo¬ 
ride will then crystallize out and clog the radi¬ 
ator, besides boiling, and failing to cool the 
motor. A 50-per-cent, solution has a specific 
gravity of 1.21, and should be tested occasion¬ 
ally by means of a storage-battery hydrometer. 
Equally important is it to prevent the water 
from approaching the boiling point, whatever 
the density, as boiling liberates free hydrochlo¬ 
ric acid, which at once attacks the metal of the 
radiator and cylinders. 

A solution of two parts of glycerine, one part 
of water, and one part of wood alcohol has been 
recommended, which is said to withstand about 
zero temperature. 

Certain mineral oils used for the lubrication 
of refrigerating machinery are recommended 
for cooling, because they remain liquid at very 
low temperatures. They are not particularly 
good heat conductors, however, and w T ill not 
keep the motor as cool as the water solution. 
If the oil is used, it must be cleaned from the 
radiator by the use of kerosene and oil soap, 
before water can again be used effectively. 

As regards lubrication, the principal danger 
is that the oil will thicken from the cold so that 
it will refuse to feed. This is avoided by using 


244 


The Automobile Handbook 


cold test oil, which remains liquid at lower tem¬ 
peratures than ordinary oil, or by adding to the 
ordinary ©il some kerosene or gasoline, and in¬ 
creasing the feed. If the oil tank is located 
close to the engine, it will remain liquid, even in 
quite cold weather. But unless the car has been 
kept in a warm place over night, the bearings are 
liable to run dry before the car has warmed up. 

Cooling Solutions—For Winter. Radiators 
are costly, delicate and composite in construc¬ 
tion, the latter due to the plurality of metals in 
their make-up, hence electrolytic action takes 
place, due to the difference of potential nat¬ 
ural to the different metals immersed in a saline 
bath. Therefore great care should be exer¬ 
cised in the preparation of anti-freezing solu¬ 
tions made up of calcium chloride (common 
salt and water). Any approach to the satura¬ 
tion limit is attended with danger of precipita¬ 
tion. The saturated solution is ascertained at 
60 degrees F., and increasing the temperature 
increases the capacity of the water to hold the 
salts in suspension. 

On the other hand, the Ohmic resistance of 
a solution is lowest at about half saturation. 
To sum up, it is experience that counts, and 
it is still a question as to the extent to which 
saline solutions can be used with safety. Of 
course there is no solution as good as water 
alone, but unfortunately water will expand 
when it freezes, and it will freeze on small prov¬ 
ocation in a radiator. Oil as a cooling medium 


The Automobile Handbook 


245 


has points in its favor which some authorities 
claim render it more efficient than water, as 
for instance it has a higher boiling point, about 
double that of water, and as a result the oil 
v T ill not waste away except by leakage. The 
heat exchange occurs at a higher temperature, 
thereby increasing the efficiency of the motor. 
Then also the area of radiating surface may be 
smaller, with a conescjuent decrease in weight, 
while the work of .the fan is rendered of less 
importance. A light, thin, pure mineral oil is 
the most reliable. Animal, and vegetable oils 
are more apt to become rancid, the acid in them 

also attacks the metal of the radiator. 

Deposits in "Water Jacket. If the cooling 

water contains lime or alkali, the heating of the 
water in the jacket will cause these solid sub¬ 
stances to be deposited in the cooling spaces. 
This will soon choke any narrow ports and pre¬ 
vent proper circulation, resulting in overheat¬ 
ing, rapid wearing of the valves, and loss of 
power and efficiency. A simple remedy consists 
of the application, at regular intervals, of a di¬ 
lute solution of hydrochloric, or muriatic, acid, 
made as follows: Dilute one part of muriatic 
acid with nineteen parts of water, and, after 
draining the jacket completely, pour in enough 
of the solution to fill the entire cooling space. 
Allow the mixture to remain in the jacket for 
not more than 8 to 12 hours, after which wash 
the cooling space thoroughly by running clear 
water through it. If the solution is permitted 


246 


The Automobile Handbook 


to remain in the jacket longer than the period 
stated, there is danger that the metal may be 
damaged by the action of the acid. The acid 
will soften and dissolve the lime or alkali, and 
the clean water will remove it from the jacket, 
--t is generally sufficient to apply this method 
of removing the deposits once every two weeks. 

If neglected too long, the acid will not dissolve 
the deposit. 



Coupling, Oldham. On account of the dis, 
tortion of the frame or running gear of an 
automobile, due to unequal spring deflection 
and irregularities of the road surface, means 
should be provided to insure flexible joints or 
connections between the various rotating parts 
of the mechanism of a ear. The device shown 
m igure 114 is not susceptible to any great 





























































The Automobile Handbook 


247 


amount of angular distortion, but will transmit 
power with a practically uniform velocity, with 
the axes of the shafts considerably out of align¬ 
ment in vertical or horizontal parallel planes. 

Differential Gears. So long as an automo¬ 
bile moves in a perfectly straight path, its two 
driving wheels turn at equal speed, since they 
must cover equal distances in equal periods of 
time, and it would be perfectly allowable that 
the two wheels should be locked together, as 
there would be no relative motion between 
them. The power could be transmitted to 
either one, or to both of them with perfectly 
satisfactory results under these circumstances. 
When, however, a car is to be moved in a curved 
path, as in turning a corner, the driving wheels 
must move at different speeds, since the out¬ 
side one has to cover a longer distance in the 
same time than does the wheel which is on the 
inside of the curve. If the two wheels were 
locked together under these conditions, one or 
both of them would be forced to slip, as the 
speeds transmitted to them would be equal, 
while the distances they are to travel aie un¬ 
equal. This difficulty is successfully overcome 
by the use of the differential gear which trans¬ 
mits the power from the change-speed gear to 
the rear axle, or driving wheels of the car. 
Differential gears consist of a set of four or 
more gears attached to the ends of two shafts 
that meet, and are usually in line, so that 
both are rotated in the same direction. But, if 


248 


The Automobile Handbook 


either meets with extra resistance it may rotate 

more slowly than the other, or may stop alto¬ 
gether. 

These gears are used on the driving axles 
of automobiles. The axle is made in two parts, 
with a gear on the end of each, where the parts 
come together. Other gears mesh with both 
these axle gears, and are driven from the engine 
by a sprocket and chain, or by bevel gears and 
shaft. These gears turn the axle, but permit 



Fig. 115 

Bevel Gear Differential With Bevel Driving Gear 

and Pinion 


its two parts to turn in respect to each other 
so as to allow the automobile to go around a 
corner without causing the wheels to slide, or 
skid. The rear wheels are each fixed to a half 
of the rear axle, and both receive power, 
hence it is necessary to allow one wheel -to turn 
at a different speed from the other, and this 

is accomplished >y means of the differential 
gear. 




















The Automobile Handbook 


249 


Bevel Gear Differential. Fig. 117 shows a 
bevel gear differential in which A and B are the 
two halves of the rear axle, which is divided at 
its center. One of the driving wheels is carried 
on A, and the other one on B, while the inner 
ends of the two half axles are each fitted with 
bevel gear wheels C and D. Meshing with 
these two bevel gears are two, three or four 
bevel gears, two of which are shown at E and 
F. These pinions are supported on radial studs 
which project inwardly from the casing. Upon 
this casing are sprocket or bevel gear teeth 
which are driven from the engine. The teeth of 
each pinion, E and F are at all times in mesh 
with the teeth of both the bevel gears C and D 
on the axle. When the car is in operation, the 
chain or bevel drive revolves the case contain¬ 
ing the pinions, and the power is transmitted 
through the teeth of the pinions E 'and F to the 
teeth of the gears C and D and thence to the 
axle and wheels. So long as the vehicle travels- 
in a straight line, the pinions act as stationary 
driving members, and have no occasion to re¬ 
volve, as the two halves of the axle and their 
gears are moving at equal speeds. They merely 
revolve with the frame. The same teeth of tie 
bevel pinions and gears are in contact so long 
as a straight path is traversed. When, however, 
the car is steered in a curve and different veloc¬ 
ities are required in the drivers and the bevel 
gears with which they are connected, the pm- 


250 


The Automobile Handbook 


ions no longer act as fixed driving members, 
but each turns upon its stud and allows the 
necessary relative motion between the two bevel 
gears, and at the same time they continually 
transmit power to the two ends of the axle be¬ 
cause they are always in mesh with each other. 
This compensating action may continue indefi¬ 
nitely through any amount of variation be¬ 
tween the driving wheel rotation, because one 



\ 

J 


Fig. 116 

Bevel Gear Differential Connected to Sprocket 

tooth of the pinions comes into play as fast as 
the preceding one disengages with the bevel 
wheels on the shaft. Pig. 116 presents a larger 
view of the bevel gear differential, the two 
gears on the rear axle being shown as secured 
o the shaft, and to a sleeve on the shaft. The 
. lfferentla l employed here has three bevel pin- 
ions turning on radial studs, which are secured 

to the arms of a spider at their inner ^ A 

differential bevel gear, all hough most exten- 



































The Automobile Handbook 


251 


sively used, is open to the objection that the 
bevel gears impose an end thrust upon the two 
halves of the mainshaft on rear axle. This has 
led to the design of differentials in which only 
spur gears are used. 



Fig. 117. 

Bevel Gear Differential. 


Bevel Gear Differential. Fig. 118 shows 
a semi-sectional view of the bevel differential 
gear. The engine shaft carries a bevel gear 
wheel shown in section at a. This gear meshes 
with the large bevel gear b, on the differential 
gear case c. On the inside of this gear case 
are carried a number of small bevel gears, one 
of which is shown in section at d. These are 
free to turn on the studs that hold them to the 
gear case. These gears in turn mesh with bevel 
gears e and f, on the ends of the half axles. 

The principle governing the action of the 
bevel gear differential is similar to that of the 





252 


The Automobile Handbook 


spur gear differential. When the two bevel 
gears e and f on the half axles meet with the 
same resistance, the small bevel gears d do not 
turn on their bearings; but when the movement 
of one of the gears e or f is resisted more than 



that of the other it lags behind, causing the 
small bevel gears d to turn on their axles suffi¬ 
ciently to equalize the resistance. 

Spur Gear Differential. In the spur dif¬ 
ferential, bevel gears are replaced by gears of 





































































The Automobile Handbook 


253 


the spur type, as shown in Fig. 119, a large 
spur gear being secured to each half axle, as 
shown at A and B, exactly as are the bevel 
gears. A double set of spur pinions, E and F r 
having their bearings in the frame, revolve 



upon axes parallel with the axle. For each 
bevel pinion is substituted a pair of spur gears, 
E and F, which mesh with each other, and at 
the same time each one of them is in mesh with 
one of the large gears. The combination of the 































254 


The Automobile Handbook 


motion of each pinion of the pair upon its gear, 
and the motion of the pair upon each other 
produces the same effect as the use of a bevel 
pinion. "When the vehicle is rounding a curve 
one rear wheel moves less rapidly, causing the 
pinions with which it is geared to revolve upon 
their bearings, and thus compensate for the in¬ 
creased resistance. 



Fig. 120 

Sectioned and Side View ot Bevel Gear Differential 


Testing Differential Gears. The differen¬ 
tial gear should be tested with a view to locat¬ 
ing any wear or side play. This may be done 
jacking up the rear axle and shaking one 












































The Automobile Handbook 255 

\ 

■wheel forward and backward while the other 
is held stationary, and noting how far the 
wheel must be turned before the movement is 
taken up by the flywheel of the engine. Any 
noticeable play will generally be found either 
in the center pinions of studs of the differential 
gear, in the large and small bevel gears, in the 
clutch sleeve, or in the universal joints. The 
differential gear, and live axle of modern cars 
seldom give trouble if kept properly lubricated, 
and the car’s mileage should run up into many 
thousands before any considerable amount of 
play is evident. The joint pins of the propeller 
shaft may become loose through wear, in which 
case a knocking noise in the transmission gear 
will indicate the cause and location of the 
trouble. These pins may be readily replaced 
vcith new ones at small cost. If the play is 
found in the bevel gears, the small gear should 
be adjusted to mesh deeper with its larger mate. 
This may be done by means of the adjustable 
locking ring or by inserting a washer of the 
proper thickness. It may be found, however, 
that no adjustment is necessary, and a thor¬ 
ough cleaning with gasoline to remove all oil 
and grease will be all that is required. The 
case should then be refilled with the quantity 
of oil and grease recommended by the manu¬ 
facturers. 



256 


The Automobile Handbook 


Driving, Automobile. When on the open 

road, away from cities or towns, the fol¬ 
lowing rules should be borne in mind. (1) 
Drive with moderate speed on the level, slow 
speed dow r n hill, and wide open throttle for 
hill climbing, or getting up speed only. (2) 
The condition of the road should be noticed, 
the presence of mud or dust thereon furnishing 
sufficient reason for slowing down somewhat 
for the sake of other road users. (3) The or¬ 
dinary rules of the road regarding the negotia¬ 
tion of turns, and crossings, also the overtak¬ 
ing or passing of other vehicles should be ad¬ 
hered to, even though a lower rate of speed is 
involved thereby. (4) A sharp lookout should 
always be kept for traffic of all kinds, as well 
as on approaching schools, churches, or public 
buildings, and also for road signs indicating 
danger, caution, etc. (5) When on the road 
the autoist should show courtesy to other road 
users. Courtesy in autoists is much appreci¬ 
ated, and goes a long way toward removing 
the prejudice which exists in many places 
against automobiles. 

In passing another vehicle going in the same 
direction, turn out at least 75 feet back of it so 
that you have a clear view of the road ahead. 
If another vehicle is coming toward yon and 
near at hand, do not try to pass. 

When preparing to turn or stop always signal 
to drivers behind with your hand and avoid 
stopping suddenly. 


The Automobile Handbook 


257 


Gear—Changing. In changing gears the au- 
toist should endeavor to have the motor and 
car moving at nearly corresponding rates of 
speed before the clutch is engaged. With the 
planetary type of gear, changing is simple, and 
drivers usually guess at the proper period at 
which to make the change, any mistake in esti¬ 
mating the rates of the car and motor being of 
little consequence, as the bands will slip instead 
of transmitting the shock to the gear. A simi¬ 
lar action occurs in the case of individual 
clutch or friction gears, but with the sliding 
type severe strains and shocks have to be taken 
up by the clutch, and are usually transmitted in 
part to the gear if the clutch is not slipped. 
What applies to the sliding type in general ap¬ 
plies to the other types as well. 

In changing from a lower to a higher gear it 
will be necessary to speed up the motor by 
means of the throttle or accelerator in order to 
store enough energy in the flywheel to furnish 
the work needed to accelerate the car to its 
new speed. As the speed of the car increases 
the higher gear should be engaged, the autoist 
not being in too great a hurry to make the 
change. The movement of the change gear le¬ 
ver should be made quickly in order that the 
car does not lose way. When changing from a 
higher to a lower gear the change should be 
made as quickly as possible before the car has 
time to slow down. When climbing a steep hill 
it should be ascended as far as possible on the 




258 


The Automobile Handbook 


high gear by proper use of the throttle and 
spark, and the change down to the lower gear 
made as soon as the motor begins to labor or is 
in danger of stopping. The presence of an 
unusual number of passengers in the car will 
affect its ability to negotiate grades which ordi¬ 
narily are taken on the high gear, and the auto- 
ist should remember this and not attempt to 
force the car to travel on that gear with the in¬ 
creased load, but resort to a lower gear. 

Reversing—Backing Up. Among other things 
connected with driving which is apt to be neg¬ 
lected, is reversing, or driving a car backward. 
Usually a car is never reversed for more than 
a few yards at a time and the maneuvering in¬ 
volved requires no great skill. Steering a car 
when running backwards is diametrically op¬ 
posite to that when running forward. A turn 
of the wheel to the left steers the car in the 
opposite direction to the right, and vice versa. 
The usual mistake made in reversing is in turn¬ 
ing the steering wheel too far, and describing 
zigzags in the road as a result. The autoist 
should remember that the reverse gear of a 
sliding change gear should never be engaged 
until the car has been brought to a full stop. 

Brakes, Proper Use of. Next to the motive 
power in importance come the brakes. There 
are a number of points regarding brakes that 
every autoist should know and remember. First 
and most important is the fact that brakes vary 
in their effectiveness, and that freedom from dis- 


The Automobile Handbook 


259 


aster depends upon the brakes being kept in 
good condition and properly adjusted. Second,, 
while a brake may be perfectly satisfactory for 
slowing down, it by no means follows that it will 
bring a car to a stop as it should, nor hold the 
car from going backward. Third, brakes 
should be tested frequently with the car in 
motion, the pedal or hand lever being applied 
until the car slows down, or stops. The distance 
covered in making this test should be noted, 
and a greater distance allowed in making stops 

on the road. 

• 

In applying brakes, the application should be 
gradual, reducing the speed of the car as quickly 
as possible without locking the wheels. As long 
as the tires retain their grip on the road, the 
powerful retarding action of the brake contin¬ 
ues, but when the wheels are locked the brakes 
have little or no effect, and the car will either 
slide along, or skid, in either case being be¬ 
yond the control of the driver. Should the 
wheels become locked while descending a hill, 
the brakes should be released until the wheels- 
are again revolving, and then reapplied gradu¬ 
ally, until they act satisfactorily. 

Brakes should be examined at regular in¬ 
tervals in order to ascertain if the lining is in 
good condition. If worn, the old lining should 
be replaced with new. If the brakes are of the 
internal-expanding type, the shoes may have 
become worn, in which case they should be re¬ 
newed. Toggle joints and adjusting nuts 


260 


The Automobile Handbook 


should be inspected, and any looseness taken up. 
Brakes should be adjusted on +be road, as any 
improper adjustment of the equalizer bar will 
have a strong tendency to make the car skid. 
Both brakes should be adjusted alike, that the 
braking force applied by the equalizer may be 
transmitted to the wheels equally. 

Side Slip, or Skidding. If the rate of rota¬ 
tion of a wheel is greater than the rate of ad¬ 
vance over the road, the wheel loses adhesion 
and thereafter it is just as easy for it to move 

in one direction as in another. 

_ • 

The wheel can now slip sideways as easily 

as it can slip forwards, particularly when it has 

the rounded section slightly flattened, which is 

the case with pneumatic tires. When traveling 

.straight ahead, and with the motor out of gear, 

skidding does not usually occur. A slight turn 

given to the steering wheel checks the speed 

and introduces a side pressure on both front 

and rear wheels, due to the machine tending to 

continue its path in a straight line. Generally 

this side pressure will not cause skidding. If, 

however, the motor be suddenly thrown in gear, 

or the brakes suddenly applied, or, what 

amounts to the same, a large turn is given the 

steering wheel, the wheels find themselves 

either rotating more than in proportion to their 

advance, or advancing more than in proportion 

to their rotation. This immediately causes a loss 

of adhesion, which, once established, causes the 

«ar to skid or side-slip. 


The Automobile Handbook 261 


Spark—Regulation of. Upon the proper use 
of the sparking device depends the economy oi 
the motor, and in many cases the safety of the 
driver. On some cars the sparking point on the 
magneto is fixed, and the autoist controls the 
car by the throttle only. There are a number 
of cars in use which employ the battery in con¬ 
nection with separate coils or a single spark sys¬ 
tem, or a magneto on which the spark can be 
regulated by the driver. When starting, the 
spark should be retarded in the case of battery 
ignition, to prevent backfiring, and slightly ad¬ 
vanced to a certain point, depending on the 
motor and magneto, in the case of magneto igni¬ 
tion. When it is desired to slow the motor 
down below the point obtained by throttling, 
only, the spark is likewise retarded. In ordi¬ 
nary running, a position of the spark lever can 
be found which will give fair average results 
through a considerable range of speed without 
changing its position, and this position varies 
with each motor, and can be found by experi¬ 
ence. When a higher rate of speed is desired, 
the throttle is opened and the spark advanced 
gradually. If a grade is to be negotiated it 
should be “rushed” if possible, the throttle be¬ 
ing opened full and the spark well advanced 
until the motor begins to slow down and 
“knock,” when the spark should be retarded to 
correct this. The autoist should always keep 
the spark as far advanced as possible, without 
causing the motor to knock. 


262 


The Automobile Handbook 


When to Retard the Ignition. Always r<*- 
retard the ignition before starting the motor, 
and take great care that the ignition is retarded 
and not by mistake advanced. Some cars are 
fitted with a device which prevents the starting 
-crank being turned unless the spark is retarded. 
If it is not clear as to which way to move the 
ignition lever to retard the ignition, move the 
commutator in the same direction as the cam¬ 
shaft rotates. 

As soon as the motor slows a little when go¬ 
ing uphill, retarding the spark enables more 
power to be obtained from the motor at the 
slow speed, that is to say, if the spark is not 
retarded the motor will go slower than if it is 
retarded. Do not retard the lever to the utmost 
under these conditions; on the contrary, retard 
the lever to such a point that the knocking (due 
to the wrong position) ceases. 

Retarding the spark causes the maximum 
pressure of the explosion to occur at the best 
part of the stroke, or, rather, the mean pressure 
of the explosion stroke will be lower if the best 
point of ignition by retarding is not found. This 
is a matter of some skill and practice. 

To slow the motor, cut off as much mixture 
as the throttle allows, then slow the motor still 
further by retarding the spark, but on no ac¬ 
count retard the spark when the throttle is full 
open (for the purpose of slowing the motor), 
as the motor will merely discharge a quantity 
•of flame at a white heat over the stem of the 


The Automobile Handbook 263 

exhaust valve, burning it, softening it, and 
making it scale. 

When to Advance the Ignition. With too 
early ignition the pressure upon the piston be¬ 
comes excessive and without any adequate re¬ 
turn of useful work or energy. If the ignition 
be retarded too much, the maximum explosive 
pressure occurs too late during the working 
or power stroke of the piston, and the combus¬ 
tion of the gases is not complete when the ex¬ 
haust-valve opens. Greater motor speed re¬ 
quires an early ignition of the charge, but 
greater power calls for late or retarded igni¬ 
tion. 

The reason for advancing the spark when 
fast running is required, is that the explosion 
or ignition of the charge is not instantaneous 
as may be supposed, but requires a brief inter¬ 
val of time for its completion. 

It may be well to explain without entering 
into theoretical details, that when a motor is 
running at normal speed, the ignition-device is 
so set that ignition takes place before the pis¬ 
ton reaches the end of its stroke. The later 
the ignition takes place the slower the speed 
of the motor and consequently the less power it 
will develop. If, however, in starting the mo¬ 
tor the ignition-device were set to operate be¬ 
fore the piston reached the end of its stroke, 
backfiring would occur, resulting in a reversal 
of the operation of the motor and possibly in 
injury to the operator. 



264 


The Automobile Handbook 


Car Inspection. Most autoists are content to 
make all tlieir inspection of the car and its mech¬ 
anism from above, and rarely give more than a 
casual glance below the frame except when 
trouble occurs. On cars fitted with pressure-feed 
on the gasoline, the piping should be frequently 
inspected, on account of the danger from fuel 
leakage. Such inspections should be made 
when the motor is stopped, and the pressure still 
turned on. 1 he tank should be gone over for 
leaks arising through the opening of its seams 
from vibration, or the loosening of the union 
connecting the fuel lead with the tank. The 
lead and its connection to the carbureter should 
also be examined for leaks and abrasions due to 
rubbing against other parts of the mechanism. 
If any such are found they should be immedi- 
diately repaired. Twine, tire tape, or rubber 
bands will act satisfactorily as fenders to pre¬ 
vent further mischief. Unions which cannot be 
made tight by screwing up should be taken 
apart and the male connections coated with 
soap or red lead, which will render them tight 
for a considerable time. 

After going over the fuel system, the brake 
rods and steering connections should be exam¬ 
ined foi loose joints and broken oil and grease 
cups. Grease boots on the drive-shaft joints 
should be seen, to be sound, and filled with 
grease. A cleaning out of the dirt from the in¬ 
terior of the mud-pan will often reveal lost cot-' 
ter pins or nuts, and tend to a more agreeable 
handling of the draincocks, carbureter and fil- 


The Automobile Handbook 


265 


ter. This time will be well spent when the 
chances of fire or accidents arising from faulty 
steering or brake connections are taken into 
account. 

Dont’s. In the first place don’t forget to as¬ 
certain the fact that the ignition mechanism is 
retarded before cranking the motor. Many a 
sprained wrist and a few cases, of broken 
heads or arms have been caused by the neglect 
of this simple precaution. It is a good plan to 
have the ignition-control spring so actuated that 
in its normal position it is always retarded. 

Don’t use the electric starting motor to pro¬ 
pel the car. It ruins the battery. 

Don’t use a match or a small torch to inspect 
the carburetor. It sometimes leads to unex¬ 
pected results. 

Don’t forget to fill the gasoline tank before 
starting. 

Don’t smoke while filling the gasoline tank. 

Don’t take out all the spark plugs when 
there is nothing the matter, except that there 
is no gasoline in the tank. 

Don’t forget to always have an extra spark 
plug on the car. 

Don’t allow the motor to race or run fast 
when out of gear. If the car is to be stopped 
for a few minutes, without stopping the motor, 
retard the ignition and also throttle the charge, 
so that the motor will run as slowly as possible. 

Don’t fill the gasoline tank too full, leave an 




266 


The Automobile Handbook 


air space at the top or the gasoline will not flow 
readily. 

Don’t pnt grease in the crank case of the 
motor, it will clog up the oil holes and prevent 
the oil from circulating. 

Don’t fill the gasoline tank by lamp or candle 
light, something unexpected may happen. 

Don’t keep on running when an unusual noise 
is heard about the car, stop and find out what 
it is. 

Don’t start or stop too suddenly, something 
may break. 

Don’t pour gasoline over the hands and then 
rub them together. That rubs the dirt into the 
skin. The proper way to do is to saturate a 
towel with gasoline and then wipe the dirt off. 

Don’t forget to examine the steering gear 
frequently. 

Don’t fail to examine the pipe between the 
carbureter and the admission-valve occasionally. 
The pipe connections sometimes get loose and 
allow air to enter and weaken the mixture. 

Don’t forget to see that there is plenty of 
water and gasoline in the tanks. 

Don’t fail to clean the motor and all the 
wearing parts of the car occasionally. 

Don’t forget to oil every part of the motor 
where there is any friction, except the valve 
stems. 

Don’t forget to put distilled water in the bat¬ 
tery every ten to fifteen days. 


The Automobile Handbook 


267 


Dynamometer. A dynamometer is a form of 
equalizing gear which is attached between a 
source of power and a piece of machinery when 
it is desired to ascertain the power necessary to 
operate the machinery with a given rate of speed. 

Electricity, Forms of. Electricity or electri¬ 
cal energy may be generated in several ways— 
mechanically, chemically and statically or by 
friction. By whatever means it is produced, 
there are many properties which are common 
to all. There are also distinctive properties. 
The current supplied by the storage battery 
will flow continuously until the battery is prac¬ 
tically exhausted, while the current from a dry 
battery can only be used intermittently; that is, 
it must have slight periods of rest. 

The dynamo or magneto current is primarily 
of an alternating nature, or one which reverses 
its direction of flow rapidly. In use, this alter¬ 
nating current is changed into a direct or con¬ 
tinuous current flowing in one direction only, 
by means of a commutator. Any of the forms 
described are capable of igniting an explosive 
charge in a motor cylinder, but the static or 
frictional form of electricity is not used for this 
purpose on account of its erratic nature. 

Electromotive Force, Definition of. The 
cause of a manifestation of energy is force; if 
it be electric energy in current form it is called 
electromotive force. An electromotive force 
or pressure of one volt will force one ampere 
through one ohm of resistance. 


268 


The Automobile Handbook 


Engines, Internal Combustion. 

Engine—Construction of. An automobile 
engine should answer the following require* 
ments in order to meet the demands of the mo¬ 
tor user: It must be of light weight in propor- 
tion to its horse power, so that as large a pro¬ 
portion of its power as possible may be avail¬ 
able for propelling the useful load, and but lit¬ 
tle demanded to move its own weight; it must 
be compact, in order that it shall not occupy 
too large a proportion of the available room of 
the car; it must operate without undue noise 
and vibration; it must be fully enclosed as a 
protection against the weather, and still it must 
be so located as to be easily accessible fo>* in¬ 
spection, oiling and repairs; its operation TLtist 
be automatic for considerable periods of time, 
as regards cooling and lubrication; it must be 
capable of running very slowly, or very fast at 
will, and of developing little, or much power; it 
must be supported upon the car in such a man¬ 
ner that its power may be most readily and 
efficiently transmitted to the driving wheels, 
and it must further be carried upon springs so 
that the jar and shock from the road shall not 
be transmitted to it. 

Explosive Motors. Explosive motors are of 
three forms, known as stationary, marine and 
automobile. Their general characteristics are 


The Automobile Handbook 


269 


implied by their various designations. The sta¬ 
tionary motor may be either vertical or hori¬ 
zontal. Marine motors, designed for applica¬ 
tion to boats, are almost invariably vertical. 
Automobile motors are of comparatively recent 
introduction and of great variety, the aim of 
the designers being to secure the maximum of 
power and minimum of weight. They also 
may be vertical or horizontal. 

These three forms may be again divided into 
two-cycle and four-cycle types. In the former 
an explosion occurs at every revolution. In the 
latter there is an explosion at every alternate 
revolution. 

Explosive motors are dependent for success¬ 
ful operation on two things: First, a charge of 
gas or vapor, mixed with sufficient air to pro¬ 
duce an explosive mixture, and second, a 
method of firing the charge after it has been 
taken into the combustion chamber of the 
motor. 

When coal gas is used the supply is taken 
from the main and mixed directly with the nec¬ 
essary proportion of air. When gasoline is 
used, air is mixed with it in the correct pro¬ 
portion by carbureting devices. 

After the charge of gas and air has been 
taken into the cylinder it is compressed, as will 
be shown later, by the action of the motor itself 
and then fired, usually by an electric spark 
actuated by the motor, but sometimes by the 
use of a tube screwed into the cylinder and 



270 


The Automobile Handbook 




I 



Fig. 121 


/ 


\ 


i) 





i • 







































































































The Automobile Handbook 


271 


Internal Combustion Automobile Engine. 1, Oil 
Valve Lever. 2, Oil Valve Adjustment. 3, Oil 
Valve Lifter. 4, Oil Valve Slot. 5, Oil Tank 
Cover. 6, Water Jacket. 7, Oil Tank. 8, Oil 
Valve Spring. 9, Oil Valve Plunger. 10, Oil. 11, 
Oil Gauge Glass. 12, Oil Valve. 13, Oil Feed 
Window. 14, Water Inlet. 15, Cylinder Joint. 
16, Cylinder Wall. 17, Crank Case Breather. 

18, Oil Feed Pipe. 19, Connecting Rod Bear¬ 
ing. 20, Crank Pin. 21, Rod Bearing Bolt. 
22, Oil Scoop. 23, Crank Shaft Timing Gear. 
24, Crank Case. 25, Oil Lever Overflow. 26, 
Crankcase Oil. 27, Oil Drain Cock. 28, Cam 
Shaft Timing Gear. 29, Cam Shaft Plate. 30, 
Cam Shaft. 31, Cam Shaft Housing. 32, Ex¬ 
haust Outlet. 33, Gasoline Pipe to Carburetor. 
3 4, Carburetor Priming Lever. 35, Carburetor. 
36, Throttle Lever Rod. 37, Gasoline Adjust¬ 
ment. 38, Valve Lifter Rod. 39, Valve Stem 
Adjustment. 40, Fibre in Valve Plunger. 41, 
Cylinder Space. 42, Valve Spring. 43, Ex¬ 
haust Pipe. 44, Connecting Rod. 45, Piston. 
46, Wrist Pin Set Screw. 47, Oil Groove in 
Piston. 48, Wrist Pin. 49, Exhaust Manifold. 
50, Manifold Clamp Nut. 51, Intake Manifold. 
52, Intake Passage in Cylinder. 53, Valve Stem. 
54, Valve Head. 55, Valve Opening, Seat and 
Face. 56, Piston Rings. 57, Combustion Space. 
58, Valve Pocket. 59, Priming Cup. 60, Valve 
Cap. 61, Water Outlet Header. 63, Valve Cap. 




272 


The Automobile Handbook 


* 





... Fig. 122 

Front and Sid© View of Section Through Four Cylinder Automobile Engine 










































































































The Automobile Handbook 


273 


heated from the outside, the heat, of course, 
being communicated to the gas. The resulting 
explosion operates the motor. 

The principal parts of a four-cycle explosive 
motor are the cylinder, the piston, the piston 
Hngs which fit into grooves in the piston: two 
sets of valves, one to admit the charge and the 
other to permit it to escape after the explosion 
a crank shaft and connecting rod which con¬ 
nect it with the piston head, and a flywheel, 
whose presence insures steady running of the 
motor, and whose further functions will be 
better understood as the description proceeds. 
In the two-cycle form of motor there is really 
but one valve, the exhaust and admission-ports 
being covered and uncovered by the piston it¬ 
self. 

All of the parts referred to are of the motor 
proper. Other parts, which are separate from 
the motor but on which its operation depends, 
are the carbureter, which supplies the charge 
of gasoline vapor and air for a gasoline motor, 
or a mixing chamber for mixing air and gas in 
the case of a gas motor, and the batteries and 
other parts of the electrical ignition device. 

A part which has no connection with the 
actual running of the motor but with which 
practically all are fitted is the muffler, whose 
purpose is to deaden the sound of the explo¬ 
sion. 

The cylinders of all except very small motors 
are as a rule partly encased in a chamber 



274 


The Automobile Handbook 


through which water is circulated; the object 
of this being to keep the cylinder cool. 

In other cases a current of cool air is sent 
around each of the cylinders by means of ducts 
and one or more fans, this air acting as a direct 
cooling agent. 



Fig. 123 

Section Through Six Cylinder Long Stroke Engine 


Pistons. The piston used in a gasoline motor 
cylinder is of the single-acting or trunk type. 
It is made of an iron casting which is a good 
working fit in the cylinder. Around the upper 





















































The Automobile Handbook 


275 


end of the piston three or four grooves are cut, 
and in these grooves the piston-rings fit. The 
rings are made of cast iron, and the bore of the 
ring being eccentric to its outer diameter, there 
is a certain amount of spring in them, and so 
pressure is caused against the cylinder wall, 
preventing any of the expanding gases passing 

the piston. 

Piston Materials. Until recently it has been 
the universal practice to make internal combus¬ 
tion engine pistons of cast iron for the reason 
that this material does not warp under heat to 
such an extent as does steel. The principal 
objection to cast iron has been its comparatively 
high weight, this weight being necessary because 
of the lack of great strength in the metal. It is 
a well known fact that cast iron is very brittle. 
With the advent of the modern high speed en¬ 
gine, experiments were conducted with steel pis¬ 
tons’ because of the fact that they allowed of 
lighter construction with equal strength. Steel 
pistons have done satisfactory work, but are very 
high in production cost, and this has prevented 

their general introduction. 

The necessity for reducing the weight of the 
reciprocating parts has more recently led to the 
introduction and use of pistons made from alloys 
of aluminum, which, of course, gives the desired 
reduction in weight. The fit of the piston m the 
cylinder cannot be so tight when cold as with 
cast iron or steel, but as soon as the engine has 
run a few moments, the expansion due to heat 




276 


The Automobile Handbook 


allows the piston to fit close enough for all prac¬ 
tical purposes. These pistons are now fitted in 
many makes and models of stock cars and may 
be fitted to cars already in use. 

Piston Displacement. The piston displace¬ 
ment of a motor is the volume swept out by the 
piston, and is equal to the area of the cylinder 
multiplied by the stroke of the piston. The 
expression, cylinder volume, is sometimes con¬ 
founded with the term piston displacement. 
This is erroneous, as the cylinder volume is 
equal to the piston displacement, plus the com¬ 
bustion space in the cylinder head. 

Pistons, Length of. For vertical cylinder 
motors the length of the piston should not on 
any account be less than its diameter, while a 
length equal to one and one-quarter or even 
one and one-third diameters is better. For mo¬ 
tors with horizontal cylinders the length of the 
piston, in any case, should not be less than one 
and one-third diameters, and if possible one 
and one-half diameters or over. 

Piston Position. There is nothing more con¬ 
fusing to many motorists—not only to the be¬ 
ginner, but to many who are proficient in the 
general care and operation of their motor cars 
—than the relative various positions, in a four¬ 
cycle engine, of the four pistons on any of their 
four cycles of. compression, work, explosion, 
and exhaust, this being the order of the cycles. 

In the following illustrations the pistons are 
shown as they are usually placed in relation to 


The Automobile Handbook 


277 


















































































































































278 


The Automobile Handbook 










































































































The Automobile Handbook 


219 


one another. That is, pistons 1 and 4 are at 
the top of their strokes when pistons 2 and 3 
are at the bottom, and, obviously, vice versa. 
The figures over the pistons in each diagram 
represent their order of number, counting fiom 

either end of the engine. 

In Fig. 124, cylinder 1 is ready to descend 

on its intake stroke—having finished its ex¬ 
haust stroke—and cylinder 4 is ready to de¬ 
scend on its working stroke—having finished 
its compression stroke. Cylinders 2 and 3 are 
ready to move on their up strokes, No. 2 on its 
compression, having finished its intake, and 
No. 3 on its exhaust, having finished its working- 
stroke. The results are that the pistons are 
brought into the positions shown in Fig. 125. 
This means that cylinder No. 1, having com¬ 
pleted its intake downward stroke, is ready for 
its compression up stroke; No. 2 has moved up 
on compression and is ready to go down on 
work; No. 3 has finished exhausting and is. 
ready for intake and No. 4 has finished the 
work stroke and is ready to move up on ex¬ 
haust. Piston No. 2, having completed its work 
stroke, the pistons are brought back to the po¬ 
sitions shown in Fig. 124, but with an altered 
condition of the cycle represented by each, as 
shown in Fig. 126. The pistons are now ready 
to move to the positions shown in diagram 2, 
with an altered cycle condition. Cylinder No. 
1 moves down on work; No. 2 up on exhaust; 



280 


The Automobile Handbook 


No. 3 up on compression and No. 4 down on in. 
take, see Fig. 127. 

When the cycle of each has been completed, 
from the above starting points of No. 1, ex¬ 
haust; No. 2, intake; No. 3, work, and No. 4, 
compression, the pistons are then back not only 
in the position of Fig. 124, but with the same 
condition of cycles. 

this explanation has been in the order of the 
cylinder numbers, but the effect of each cycle 
of each cylinder will be easier traced if it be 
remembered that the order in which the cylin¬ 
ders work is: Cylinder 1, then cylinder 3, then 
cylinder 4, and then cylinder 2, and then repeat 
indefinitely. From this and the above illustra¬ 
tions it will be easily understood that as piston 
No. 1 goes down on its work stroke, No. 3 
comes up on compression stroke, and'is then 
ready for the work, which is a down stroke 
bringing No. 4 up on compression. No. 4 then 
goes down on work and brings No. 2 up on com¬ 
pression, then it goes down on work and brings 
No. 1 up on compression for the repeating of 
c\ cles. This shows that each synchronized pair, 
1-4 and 2-3, always have one cycle between them 
as they move together, either up or down. 

. Piston -Rings. To ensure proper compression 
it is absolutely essential that the piston-rings 
should be kept lubricated; consequently when 
the motor has been idle for some time, the 
compression at the start is often poor. Any fail- 
ui e in the lubrication while running will, of 


The Automobile Handbook 


281 


course, liave the same effect, such, for example, 
as in the case of overheating, or when the sup¬ 
ply is intermittent. Sometimes the piston- 
rings get stuck in their grooves with burnt oil, 
through overheating, and the compression es¬ 
capes past them. Thorough cleaning with kero¬ 
sene, and fresh lubricating oil will settle the 
matter. In motors where the rings are not 
pinned in position, the slots may work round so 
as to coincide. In this case they will have to he 
moved around. Sometimes burnt oil may, ap¬ 
parently, have the opposite effect on piston- 
rings, for by causing the piston to grip in the 
cylinder, it will produce considerable resist¬ 
ance, and the operator might erroneously think 
in consequence that his compression is good. In 
every case, after a long run, a little kerosene 
should be injected into the cylinders to clean 

the rings. 

Many of the specially prepared carbon remov¬ 
ers will also act to clean the piston rings. 

Flywheels. One of the first and most impor¬ 
tant considerations in connection with the con¬ 
struction of a gasoline automobile motor is the 
proper diameter and weight of the flywheel. If 
the diameter and weight of the flywheel be 
known, the speed of the motor or its degree of 
compression will become a variable quantity. 
On the other hand, if the speed of the motor 
and the degree of compression be fixed, the di¬ 
ameter or weight of the flywheel rim must bo 
varied to suit the other conditions. 


282 


The Automobile Handbook 


While it is true that the weight of the flywheel 
may be reduced as the number of cylinders is 
increased, there is a practical limit below which 
it is inadvisable to reduce the weight at the 
rim. Even should the number of cylinders be 
sufficient to cause a balance between the work¬ 
ing strokes, it would still be desirable to add a 
rotating weight to compensate in some measure 
for the several reciprocating masses, such as 
pistons, connecting rods, crankshaft webs, etc. 
Engines have been built for racing purposes 
without flywheels, but they were unsuccessful. 

Camshaft. Fig. 128 is a sectional view of a 
motor cylinder and illustrates the principle and 
action of the camshaft. In many motors one 
camshaft serves to open both intake and exhaust 
valves, while m other motors there is a cam-shaft 
for each set of valves. Besides opening the valves 
the cams determine the length of time the valves 
remain open, also the speed with which it opens 
and closes. Referring to Fig. 128, A is the crank¬ 
shaft, P the piston, D is the cam-shaft which 
carries the cam E. The speed of the cam-shaft 
depends upon the type of engine. The one 
shown m big. 128 is driven at half the speed of 
e crank-shaft through the gear wheels B and 
^ ^eing one half the size of C. H is the 

^ b ® opened > which in opening must be 
Wted off its seat. This is done when the cam 

TfZf aDd rais6S the rolIer G on the lower 
end of lifter rod F which extends upward rest- 

mg against the lower end of the stem of valve 


The Automobile Handbook 


283 


H, although between the two rods, or rather at 
their point of contact are nut and lock-nut L>, 



for adjusting the length of P when timing the 
valve. K is a spiral spring, the function oi 













'284 


The Automobile Handbook 


which is to close the valve, after the cam E trav¬ 
els around and allows G to drop. Directly 
above valve H is the intake valve M, which in 
this case opens downward. This valve opens 
automatically, due to the suction of the piston 
in moving downwards on the intake stroke, but 
is kept closed during the compression and ex¬ 
haust strokes of the piston, by the pressure in 
the cylinder. 

Modern forms of construction make the cam¬ 
shaft and cams from one piece of steel, and the 
cams are then said to be integral with the shaft. 
This method makes it possible to place the cams 
in exactly the right position at the factory, and 
the danger of lost power from improper placing 
is thus greatly reduced. 

Manifold, Inlet. The internal diameter of 
the admission or inlet-pipe leading from the 
carbureter to the admission-valve chamber should 

not exceed one-fourth the diameter of the motor 
cylinder. 

This limitation is necessary in order to pro¬ 
duce as great a partial vacuum as is possible in 
the admission-pipe. The carbureter should be 
placed as close as possible to the admission- 
valve chamber of the motor in order to secure 
the best results. Short turns or bends in the 
admission-pipe greatly increase the air-friction 
in the pipe, and at high speeds greatly diminish 
the volume of the charge drawn into the cylin- 

aer ])y tlie mductive or suction action of the 
motor-piston. 


The Automobile Handbook 285 

The desire to prevent condensation of the 
gasoline vapor in the inlet manifold has led 
many designers to fasten the carburetor flange 
directly to the cylinder casting at the point of 
entrance to the inlet valve passages. Others 
have either completely or partially water-jack¬ 
eted the inlet manifold for its entire length. In 
all cases, the distance between the carburetor 
mixing chamber and the inlet valve port is 
made as short as possible. 

A troublesome condition on many cars is 
that caused by minute air leaks in the inlet 
piping and connections. If carburetor adjust¬ 
ment is difficult, squirt liquid gasoline on the 
inlet connections with the engine running. Any 
change in engine speed is a sure indication that 
one or more air leaks exist. _ 



ADMISSION PIPE 


Fig. 129 

The radius of curvature of the pipe on its cen¬ 
ter line should not be less than twice the out- 



























286 


The Automobile Handbook 


side diameter of -the pipe. If space allows, a 
radius of three times the outside diameter of 

the pipe will give better results than two diam¬ 
eters. 

Combustion Chamber. That part of an ex¬ 
plosive motor in which the gases are com¬ 
pressed, and then fired, usually by an electric 
spark, is known as the combustion chamber. 
The interior of the combustion chamber should 
be as smooth as possible and kept free from 
soot, or hard carbon deposits such as are in¬ 
duced by excessive lubrication, or the use of too 
rich an explosive mixture. 

It will be found to be no small task in design¬ 
ing an explosive motor with the usual form of 
valve construction and operation, to keep the 
combustion chamber down to the required di¬ 
mensions and at the same time have it free from 
bends or contracted passages between the com¬ 
bustion space and the valve chamber. 

Many attempts have been made to obviate 
this difficulty by making the combustion cham¬ 
ber simply a straight extension, or continuation 
of the cylinder. In this manner both the ad¬ 
mission and exhaust-valves can be placed in the 
cylinder itself and an ideal combustion space 
secured. This plan has, however, certain dis¬ 
advantages, from the fact that it not only 
lengthens the motor, but requires a more com¬ 
plicated form of valve operating mechanism 
man it the valve chamber were at the side of 
the cylinder as is usual. 



The Automobile Handbook 


287 


TABLE 9. 

PROPERTIES OF COMPRESSED AIR 


Comp, in 
Atmos¬ 
pheres. 

'Mean 

Pressure. 

Temp, in 
Degrees 
Fah. 

'Gauge 

Pres¬ 

sure. 

'Absolute 

Pressure. 

'Isother¬ 
mal Pres¬ 
sure. 

1 

0 

60 

0 

14.7 


1.6S 

7.62 

145 

10 

24.7 

30.39 

2.02 

10.33 

178 

15 

29.7 

39.34 

2.36 

12.62 

207 

20 

34.7 

48.91 

2.70 | 

14.59 

234 

25 

39.7 

59.05 

3.04 

16.34 

252 

30 

44.7 

69.72 

3.38 

17.92 

281 

35 

49.7 

80.87 

3.72 

19.32 

302 

40 

54.7 

92.49 

4.06 

20.57 

324 

45 

59.7 

104.53 

4.40 

21.69 

339 

50 

64.7 

116.99 

4.74 

22.76 

357 

55 

69.7 

129.84 

5.08 

23.78 

375 

60 

74.7 

143.05 

5.42 

24.75 

389 

65 

79.7 

156.64 

5.76 

25.67 

405 

70 

84.7 

170.58 

6.10 

26.55 

420 

75 

89.7 

184.83 


*In pounds per square inch. 


Air Properties of Compressed. Table 9 gives 
the Mean pressure, Temperature in degrees 
Fahr., Gauge pressure, Absolute pressure and 
the Isothermal or heat pressure of air under 
compression of from 1 to 6.10 atmospheres. 

As energy in the form of power must be used 
to compress air to any desired pressure, so is 
energy in the form of latent or stored heat 
given up by the air during the operation of 
compression. This heat consequently increases 
the pressure resulting from the compression, 
but not directly in proportion to the degree of 
compression in atmospheres. 

This increase of pressure above the Adiabatic 
or calculated pressure is known as the Isother¬ 
mal or heat-pressure. As the values of this 






















288 


The Automobile Handbook 


pressure cannot be calculated by the use of 
ordinary mathematics, but involve the use of 
logarithms, Table 1 gives these values for each 
degree of compression given. 

Many persons who are not familiar with the 
properties of gases, estimate the pressure re¬ 
sulting from the compression to a given number 
of atmospheres, as the number of atmospheres 
multiplied by the atmospheric pressure, which 



FOUR- CYCLE MOTOR DIAGRAM 

Tig. 130. ' “ J 

at sea level is taken as 14.7 pounds per square 
inch. 

This assumption is erroneous and will often 
lead to grievous mistakes in motor design, 
generally giving too much compression, which 
results in premature ignition, commonly known 
as backfiring. Such methods of calculation 
v ould be true if the air, after compression, was 
stored in a reservoir and allowed to cool, but 
under no ether conditions. 























The Automobile Handbook 


289 


Four-Cycle Motor. Fig. 130 furnishes two 
sectional views of a four-cycle type of rnotoi 
with some of the parts removed, as in Fig. 121. 
It shows a cylinder C, admission-valve A, a 
piston P, and exhaust-valve E. 

The left-hand view shows the piston P about 
to suck in a charge of vapor, by the same 
method as previously described, through the 
admission-valve A into the cylinder C. The suc¬ 
tion continues until the piston P reaches the 
position shown in the right-hand view. Then 
the piston returns until it again arrives at the 
position shown in the left-hand view, compress¬ 
ing the charge of mixture during this operation. 
Just before the piston arrives at the end of its 
travel in this direction, the charge of vapor, 
now under compression, is ignited by the 
method previously explained and its expansion 
forces the piston back to the position shown in 
the right-hand view. When the piston has, for 
the second time, reached the position shown in 
the right-hand drawing, a mechanical device 
opens the exhaust-valve. The exhaust-valve 
remains open until the piston has again arrived 
at the position in the left-hand view. Then it 
closes, the piston again commences to draw in 
a charge of vapor and the cycle of operation 
of the motor is repeated. 

Four-Cycle Motor, Operation of. A four¬ 
cycle motor has only one working stroke or im¬ 
pulse for each two revolutions. During these 





290 


The Automobile Handbook 


two revolutions which complete the cyCie of 
the motor, six operations are performed: 

1. Admission of an explosive charge of gas, 
or gasoline vapor and air to the motor-cylinder. 

2. Compression of the explosive charge. 

3. Ignition of the compressed charge by a 
hot tube, or an electric spark. 



Pig. 131 

Four-Cylinder Engine 


4. Explosion or extremely sudden rise in the 
pressure of the compressed charge, from the in¬ 
crease in temperature after ignition. 

5. Expansion of the burning charge during 
the working stroke of the motor-piston. 

6. Exhaust or expulsion of the burned gases 
from the motor-cylinder. 




































The Automobile Handbook 


291 


Two-Cycle Motor. The foregoing outline of 
the functions of the parts of the motor prepares 
us for a description of the two-cycle form of 
motor. This particular form of motor draws 
in a charge of gas or vapor, compresses it, fires 
it and discharges the product of combustion or 
burned gases while the crank makes but a sin- 



TWO-CYCLE MOTOR DIAGRAM 


Fig. 132 


gle revolution, and while the piston makes one 
complete travel backward and forward. 

Fig. 132 shows two sectional views—that is 
to say, views of the motor cut in two, longi¬ 
tudinally—of the principal parts of a two-cycle 
motor. Other parts, such as the crankshaft, 
connecting rod and flywheel, are omitted to 
avoid confusion. C is the crankcase and A 
the admission valve, through which the vapor 

























292 


The Automobile Handbook 


passes to the crank case. B is the inlet pas¬ 
sage, through which it passes from the crank 
chamber to the cylinder. P is the piston. The 
igniter, which makes the electric spark when 
the lower point comes in contact with the up- 
per, is shown immediately below the cylinder 
cover. This causes the explosion of the vapor. 
E is the exhaust port, through which the burned 
charge escapes after the piston has been driven 
outward by the explosion and has reached the 
end of its stroke. 

Let it be supposed that the motor is still and 
the crank chamber C is full of gas or vapor. 
To start the motor the piston is started by 
means of a crank on the flywheel shaft, and as 
it passes to the position shown in the left-hand 
drawing it forces the charge of vapor through 
the port B into the cylinder. The piston then 
returns to the position shown in the right-hand 
view, moving away from the crank chamber C, 
and in doing so closes the port B and the ex¬ 
haust opening E and compresses the charge of 
vapor. The points of the igniter separate, 
a spark occurs and the resulting explosion 
forces the piston outward again. When the pis¬ 
ton reaches a point near the end of the stroke, 
as shown in the left-hand drawing, it uncovers 
the port E and the burned charge passes out, 
the new charge coming through the port B im¬ 
mediately afterwards. 

The admission of the new charge to the crank 
chamber is controlled by the action of the pis- 


The Automobile Handbook 


293 


ton. As the latter travels outward it has a 
tendency to create a vacuum in the crank 
chamber. This draws the valve inward and 
admits the charge of vapor. 

It will be observed that there is a projection 
on the head of the piston. This is generally 
known as a baffle-plate. Its object is to pre¬ 
vent the incoming charge from passing di¬ 
rectly across the cylinder and out at the ex- 
_ haust port E, which, it will be observed, is di¬ 
rectly opposite it. The baffle-plate directs the 
incoming charge toward the combustion cham¬ 
ber end of the cylinder, providing as nearly as 
may be, a pure charge of vapor and assisting 
in the-expulsion of the remainder of the burned 
gases remaining in the cylinder as a result of 
the last explosion. 

Motors —Two and Three Port. In the two- 
port motor, as illustrated in Fig. 133, the func¬ 
tions are as follows: 

The first stroke of the piston produces a vac¬ 
uum in the crankcase and the mixture rushes 
in (as a consequence) through the check valve 
in the motor case. The second stroke com¬ 
presses the mixture, and when the communicat¬ 
ing port is uncovered the mixture surges into 
the cylinder. The next (third) stroke com¬ 
presses the mixture entrapped in the cylinder, 
since the ports are then covered by the piston, 
and at the proper instant the mixture is ignited. 

From this point on it is a normal repetition 
of functions, and once the motor gets under 





294 


The Automobile Handbook 


way it two cycles. The three-port motor, Fig. 
134, differs in that the mixture is taken in 
through a third port uncovered by the piston, 
instead of through a check valve in the case, 
and the details in practice change accordingly. 



Engine, Gasoline, Fuel Consumption op. 
The fuel consumption of a motor is always a 
seiious question, and one of importance to the 
purchaser as well as to the manufacturer. 

Ordinarily about one and two-tenths pints of 
gasoline per horsepower hour under full load 
will cover the fuel consumption. That is, when 

















































The Automobile Handbook 


295 


the mixture is of the proper explosive quality 
and the water comes from the jacket at a tem¬ 
perature of about 160 degrees Fahrenheit. 

The temperature of the water in the jacket 
around the cylinder has a great deal to do with 
the fuel consumption. 

If the water is forced around the cylinder so 
as to keep it cold, the heat from the combustion 
is cooled down so quickly by radiation that the 
expansive force of the burning gases is mate¬ 
rially reduced, and consequently less power is 
given up by the motor. 

The object of the water is not to keep the cyl¬ 
inder cold, but simply cool enough to prevent 
the lubricating oil from burning. The hotter 
the cylinder with effective lubrication the more 
power the motor will develop. 

Engine, Two-Cycle, Fuel Consumption of. 
The two-cycle engine uses more fuel than the 
four-cycle. The greatest consumption is not so 
much due to the fact that the two-cycle motor 
makes an explosion for every revolution, in 
contrast with the missed stroke of the four¬ 
cycle, as it is to the fact that there is a consider¬ 
able retention in the cylinder of the exhaust 
charge, and that, despite the deflector, more or 
less of the fresh charge escapes at the exhaust. 
The two-cycle is also harder on a battery owing 
to the greater frequency of the demands upon 
it, but with improved methods of ignition, even 
dry batteries have been found to give very sat¬ 
isfactory service. 




296 


The Automobile Handbook 



Engine, Sliding Sleeve Type. The Knight 
sleeve valve engine, Fig. 135, is a four cycle 
gasoline engine in which the usual poppett 
valves have been replaced by two concentric 
sleeves sliding up and down between the 
cylinder walls and the piston. Certain slots in 
these sleeves register with one another at proper 
intervals, producing openings between the com¬ 
bustion chamber and the inlet and exhaust 


Fig. 135 

Knight Sliding Sleeve Engine 
manifolds for the passage of fresh gas into the 
cylinder and burned gas from it. 

It will be noted that the two sleeves are inde¬ 
pendently operated by small connecting rods 














The Automobile Handbook 


297 


working from a shaft made with eccentrics. 
This eccentric shaft is driven at one-half 
crankshaft speed, usually by silent chains. This 
shaft takes the place of, and performs the same 




Inlet Open on 
Knight Engine 


Fig. 136 

Inlet Opening on 
Knight Engine 

functions as the camshaft in the poppett valve 
gngjiie. The eccentric pins that operate the 
inner sleeves are given a certain advance or 
lead over those operating the outer sleeves. 
This lead, about 90 degrees, together with the 
































































298 


The Automobile Handbook 


half-speed rotation of the shaft, gives the fol¬ 
lowing valve action: 

In Figs. 136 to 142 the relative positions 
of the pistons, sleeves and ports are shown in 



various positions during the two revolutions of 
the crankshaft that make up one working cycle 
of inlet, compression, power and exhaust 
strokes. Fig. 136 shows the inlet just open- 
ing. The port, or slot in the inner sleeve is 
coming up, the port in the outer sleeve is go- 



























































The Automobile Handbook 


299 


ing down and the passage for the incoming gas 
is formed by the rapidly increasing opening be¬ 
tween the upper edge of the slot in the inner 


sleeve and the 
outer sleeve. 



Fig. 140 
Exhaust Opening 


lower edge of 



Fig. 141 
Exhaust Open 


the slot in the 



Fig. 142 
Exhaust Closing 


Fig. 137 shows the inlet fully open. The 
inner and outer slots are exactly opposite each 
other and the inlet opening in the cylinder 
wall. Fig. 138 shows the closing of the in¬ 
let. The cylinder has been filled with fresh 
































































































300 


The Automobile Handbook 


mixture and is ready for the compression stroke. 
Fig. 139 shows the position of the sleeves at 
the top of the compression stroke; the com¬ 
bustion space having been completely sealed by 
the expansion rings in the cylinder head above 
and in the piston below. The firing of the mix¬ 
ture takes place at this point. 

Fig. 140 shows the exhaust port just start¬ 
ing to open. The slot in the outer sleeve is 
coming up and the slot in the inner sleeve is 
going down. Fig. 141 shows the exhaust 
ports fully open. The inner and outer slots 
are opposite each other and at the same time 
opposite the cylinder opening that leads to the 
exhaust piping. Fig. 142 shows the closing 
of the exhaust opening and is practically iden¬ 
tical with the position shown in Fig. 136. 
The four strokes of the cycle (inlet, compres¬ 
sion, power and exhaust) have now been com¬ 
pleted, the crankshaft has made two complete 
revolutions and each sleeve has moved up and 
down once. 

The timing of inlet and exhaust opening and 
closing is not different from that ordinarily used 
in poppett-valve engines, but the opening se¬ 
cured with this construction is greater than 
that ordinarily found in the poppett type. Some 
advantage is also gained because of the more 
direct path of the incoming and outgoing gases. 
The timing of the valve openings is not affected 
by spring pressure or engine speed. 


The Automobile Handbook 


301 


Engines, Eight and Twelve Cylinder Types. 
The development of the automobile engine has 
been along the lines of increase in number cf 
cylinders and decrease in the size of the indi- 
vidual cylinders, without any considerable in¬ 
crease in the total horsepower delivered by 
the engine. This development has resulted in 
the power being delivered more evenly, inas¬ 
much as an impulse is delivered to the crank¬ 
shaft each time a cylinder fires. With the sin¬ 
gle cylinder engine, one impulse was given for 
each two revolutions and with the increase to 
four, six and eight cylinders, the crankshaft 
has received two, three and four impulses for 
each single revolution. The twelve cylinder 
secures a power stroke for each sixty degiees 
revolution of the crankshaft and consequently 
gives six impulses for each revolution. 

The most radical change between former 
types of engine and the eight and twelve cylin¬ 
der t} r pes is that of placing the cylinders in 
two equal divisions, and, in place of standing 
vertically, they are placed at an angle of ninety 
degrees in the eight and sixty degrees in the 
twelve. This design does not materially in¬ 
crease the length of the engine over one having 
four or six cylinders of equal size and, of course, 
makes the height somewhat less, due to the in¬ 
clination. While these engines naturally re¬ 
quire additional cylinders, valves, connecting 
rods and pistons, they make use of only one 




302 


The Automobile Handbook 



Pig. 143 

Eight Cylinder Chassis 

























The Automobile Handbook 303 

crankshaft and generally of but one camshaft. 
No other increase in number of parts or ac¬ 
cessories is necessary, one carburetor, one ig¬ 
nition device and one of each of the other 
power-plant units doing the work for both sets 
of cylinders. 

The mounting and construction of the gener¬ 
ally accepted type of eight cylinder engine is 
shown in Figs. 143 to 145. As will be noted 
from the top view shown in Fig. 143, a space 
is left between the cylinder blocks which pro¬ 
vides suitable location for such fittings as the 
carburetor, the ignition unit and usually the 
lighting dynamo. The valves are located on the 
inside of their respective castings and the re¬ 
sulting position of the caps allows easy re¬ 
moval, inspection and grinding. 

The center lines of the two cylinder blocks 
intersect at the center of the crankshaft, and, 
as will be noted from the side elevation in 
Fig. 144, the crankshaft itself does not dif¬ 
fer from the usual four-throw type used with 
four cylinder engines. Depending on the type 
of connecting rod construction used, the cylin¬ 
ders in the blocks are set so that corresponding 
ones on opposite sides are exactly opposite or 
slightly offset from each other in a lengthwise 
direction. In any case the connecting rods 
from the two front cylinders fasten to one 
crankpin, while those from the second cylin¬ 
ders are on the next crankpin, and so on for 
those remaining. 




Fig. 144 

Side View of Eight Cylinder “V” Type Engine 

















































































































































































































































The Automobile Handbook 


305 


Three types of construction are in use for 
the lower end of the connecting rods; the most 
commonly used method being shown in Figs. 144 
and 145, in which one rod is straight and of 



the usual pattern while the corresponding one 
is forked and has the two sides of the fork so 
placed that they are on either side of the 
straight member. With this construction, the 
crankpin is surrounded with a sleeve or liner 
of bearing metal and the forked rod is clamped 
























































The Automobile Handbook 



Pig. 146 

Packard Twelve Cylinder Engine 

















The Automobile Handbook 


307 


around this liner so that the liner is held 
tightly by the rod, and the shaft turns inside 
the liner. The end of the straight connecting 
rod has its bearing on the outside of the liner 
just mentioned and therefore has only a recip¬ 
rocating motion on the liner in place of turn¬ 
ing all the way around. The bearing of the 
straight rod on the liner is adjustable, but the 

liner is not adjustable on the crankshaft. 

Another form of connecting-rod construc¬ 
tion forms one of the rods in the usual way 
with an adjustable hearing on the crankpin. 
On the big end of the rod just mentioned is 
a boss that carries a pin similar to a wristpin, 
and on this pin is mounted the hearing of the 
second connecting rod. The end of the second 
rod does not surround the crankshaft but is 
mounted on the end of the one with the bearing. 

The third form of rod construction is little 
used on eight cylinder types, hut is quite com¬ 
mon on twelves. This_ method uses a complete 
rod end and bearing on each rod, the ends and 
liners being placed side by side so that each con¬ 
necting rod has a bearing on one-half of the 
length of the crankpin. The rods are not in 
the same plane and therefore the cylinders aie 
offset, the set on one side of the engine being 
a little forward or hack of the opposite set. 
This method allows individual adjustment of 
each bearing. 

In engines with either eight or twelve cylin¬ 
ders, the camshaft is mounted directly above 




308 The Automobile Handbook 

the crankshaft and therefore between the cylin¬ 
der blocks. Two designs are in common use, 
one making use of separate cams for each of 
the sixteen or twenty-four valves, and the other 
using but one cam for the inlet valves of op¬ 
posite cylinders and another cam for the corre¬ 
sponding exhaust valves. With but one cam 
for two valves, the valve plunger rollers do 
not rest directly on the cam, but the plungers 
are operated from rocker arms, hinged at one 
end to the crankcase and having a roller at the 
end that rests on the cam. Wdien individual 
cams are used for each valve, the cams are of 
necessity placed side by side, but the slight 
distance between each pair makes it necessary 
to offset the valves or offset the cylinder blocks 
in a lengthwise direction. 

As mentioned, it is customary to use one car¬ 
buretor with a manifold that divides near the 
instrument with one branch for each cylinder 
block.. Some difficulty was met with in provid¬ 
ing suitable ignition for engines with eight or 
twelve cylinders, but this has been overcome 
by improved forms of ignition breakers, by the 
use of two distributors and two breakers in 
some cases and by the adoption of new prin¬ 
ciples of magneto construction in others. When 
it is lealized that a twelve cylinder engine run- 
ning at 1,800 revolutions a minute (a moderate 
speed) requires 10,800 accurately timed and 
powerful sparks every minute, the reason for 
the difficulty will be seen. 


The Automobile Handbook 


309 


In considering the firing order of these en¬ 
gines, it should be borne in mind that an eight 
is similar to two four cylinder engines, side by 
side, while a twelve is similar to two sixes. All 
four cylinder engines fire in one of two orders, 
either 1-3-4-2 or else 1-2-4-3, considering the 
front cylinder as number one. Each set of four 
cylinders in an eight, that is, the left hand set 
and the right hand set fires in one of these 

orders, the only difference with the eight being 
that one of the cylinders of the left hand set 

fires just half way between two on the right, 
while each cylinder on the right fires midway 
between two on the left. The cylinders on 
the left, from front to back are usually desig¬ 
nated as No. 1 Left, No. 2 Left, and so on; 
while those in the right are No. 1 Eight, No. 
2 Right, etc. The firing order of a number of 
eight cylinder engines is therefore as follows: 
1L, 4R, 3L, 2R, 4L, 1R, 2L, 3R; in which it 
will be seen that, looking at either the “Ls” 
or “Rs,” they fire 1-3-4-2. 

The principles explained above apply equally 
to the twelve, in which the engine may be con¬ 
sidered as two sixes, each set of cylinders fir¬ 
ing in one of the orders possible for a six. It 
is possible to number all the cylinders in either 
an eight or twelve cylinder engine consecutively 
from 1 up and in this case the front right hand 
cylinder is usually called number one. The 
numbering may then continue from front to 
back on the right hand side, in which case 


310 


The Automobile Handbook 


these cylinders will be numbered from 1 to 6, 
or may pass to the left side, calling the left 



Fig. 147 


Section Through Twelve Cylinder Engine 

front cylinder No. 2, the second one on the 
right No. 3, etc. This last method would bring 




































































































































































































The Automobile Handbook 


311 


all the odd numbers on the left and all the even 
numbers on the right. 

Designating the cylinders of a twelve by the 
numbers 1 to 6 and showing their position by 
letters, a common firing order would be as fol¬ 
lows : 1R, 6L, 5R, 2L, 3R, 4L, 6R, 1L, 2R, 5L, 
4R, 3L. This fires each set in the common or¬ 
der : 1-5-3-6-2-4. 

A. twelve cylinder engine is shown in Figs. 
146 and 147, and most of the data given in the 
foregoing pages applies equally to the twelve 
and the eight. The principal difference between 
the two types is that the angle included between 
the cylinder blocks of the twelve is less than 
that of the eight, thus leaving less space be¬ 
tween the blocks in the location often called 
the * 1 valve alley. M Because of the smallei 
space between the cylinders, a larger one is 
left outside of the cylinders before the sides 
of the hood are reached. This fact has led to 
the practice on twelves of locating the acces¬ 
sories, with the exception of the . carburetor, 
outside of the cylinder blocks and in the same 
place that they usually occupy on four and 
six cylinder types. 



312 


The Automobile Handbook 


Exhaust—Cause of Smoky. Smoke coming 
from the exhaust of a gasoline motor is due to 
one of two conditions: Over-lubrication—too 
much lubricating oil being fed to the cylinder of 
the „ motor- or too rich a mixture, that is, too 
much gasoline and an insufficient supply of air. 

The first condition may be readily detected 
by the smell of burned oil and a yellowish 
smoke. The second, by a dense black smoke 
accompanied by a pungent odor. 

Expansion—Best Conditions for. The effi¬ 
ciency of the expansion in an engine cylinder 
depends upon the initial volulne of the charge, 
the condition of the mixture, the compression 
pressure, the point of ignition, the speed of ex¬ 
pansion and the losses due to radiation. 

The losses due to improper expansion may 
therefore be decreased by making large valves 
and valve passages, but these often mean greater 
heat losses. The losses due to radiation may 
be reduced by increasing the temperature of the 
jacket water, and decreasing the area of the 
cylinder. But if the cylinder wall temperature 
is increased, there are considerable difficulties 
with lubrication, and the increased gain in 
thermal efficiency will be more than offset by 
the increased friction. 

In order to obtain the highest efficiency the 
difference in the temperature of the water en¬ 
tering and leaving the cylinder jacket should 
be a maximum. In practical tests it has been 
found that the best results are obtained when 
the jacket water is near the boiling point. 


The Automobile Handbook 


313 


Frames. The frame of passenger cars is 
made, in practically all cases, from sheet steel 
ranging in thickness from Vs fo ,c /8 inch and 
pressed, either while hot or cold, into a channel 
section. This type of frame is called pressed 
steel. In rare cases the steel channel is rein¬ 
forced with pieces of wood, while in other con¬ 
structions the body of the frame is made from 
wood and is then reinforced with plates or 

channels of steel. 

Commercial car and truck frames are also 


made from pressed steel in a majority of cases. 
Other constructions employ rolled steel of chan¬ 
nel “I” beam section, these shapes being bent 
to the required forms to suit the general design 

of the car. 

Pressed steel frames are made from carbon 
or special alloy steels, either in the natural con¬ 
dition or heat treated. The Society of Auto¬ 
motive Engineers recommends a choice between 
three grades of steel for pleasure car frames; 
the first being a .15 to .25 point carbon without 
heat treatment and having an elastic limit ot 
35,000 pounds per square inch. The second is 
a steel of 20 to .30 point carbon, having in the 
natural state an elastic limit of 40,000 pounds, 
and when heat treated a limit of 60,000 pounds 
to the inch. The third material is a chrome- 
nickel steel of .25 to .35 point carbon, which is 
heat treated and has an elastic limit o , 

pounds per square inch. 

The frame is usually designated as to size 



314 


The Automobile Handbook 


by giving the measurement of the outside depth. 
Frames 3 or 3 y 2 inches deep are usually made 
i/g inch thick; frames 4 inches deep are made 
5/32 inch thick, those 4% to 6 inches deep are 
either inch or % inch thick; all of the above 
being for passenger cars. Should the thickness 
vary from the measurements just given, the 
depth dimension will be changed from the 
nominal size. The width of the flange is never 
less than iy 2 inches for frames up to 4% inches 

deep and not less than 1% inches for deeper 
frames. 

The dimension called the drop is measured 
from the top of the side member to the center 
of the front spring bolt hole. The rear end 
rise, often called the “kick-up,” ranges from 
2 to 5 inches. A side rail offset is employed to 
allow short turning of the steering wheels, the 
distance back of the front taper that this offset 
commences, being at least 10 inches. 

The frame is completed with a number of 
cross members joining the side rails, these cross 
members being suited in number, size and shape 
to the general design of the car. In some cases 
the power plant is carried upon a small sub- 
frame supported inside of the front portion of 
the main frame, this sub-frame consisting of 
two lengthwise rails carried by two cross mem¬ 
bers, one at the front and the other at the rear 
of the sub-frame. 

Friction. Friction, being the resistance to 
motion of two bodies in contact, depends upon 


The Automobile Handbook 


315 


the following laws: It will vary in proportion 
to the pressure on the surfaces; friction of 
rest is greater than friction of motion; the to¬ 
tal friction is independent of the area of the 
contact surfaces when the pressure and speed 
remain constant; and friction is greater be¬ 
tween soft bodies than hard ones. 

The behavior of lubricated surfaces is quite 
different from dry ones, the laws of fluid fric¬ 
tion being independent of the pressure between 
the surfaces in contact, but it is proportional to 
the density of the fluid and in some manner to 
the viscosity. When a bearing is thoroughly 
lubricated it does not seem to make much dif¬ 
ference what the metals are, because there is a 
layer of oil running around with the journal 
and sliding over another layer adhering to the 
bearing. If, however, the feed fails, or the pres¬ 
sure gets too heavy for the nature of the lubri¬ 
cant, and so squeezes it out, or the temperature 
has risen so high as to affect the body of the 
oil, then the surfaces come into contact and the 
peculiar nature of the contact asserts itself, 
some combinations abrading and seizing more 
readily than others. When the lubrication is 
thorough, the condition of the fluid friction be¬ 
ing realized, the intensity of the load makes less 
difference than would be expected. 

Fuels for Automobiles. Apart from the pos¬ 
sibility of an increase in the fuel resources of 
the world due to some revolutionary discovery, 
the ingredients in any mixed fuel for automo- 




316 


The Automobile Handbook 


bile use must be confined to the following list, 
in which, for completeness, gasoline is in¬ 
cluded : 

Gasoline. Average composition, C=84, H= 
16. 

Source, petroleum. 

Boiling point, 50° to 150° Cent. 

Specific gravity, .680 to .720. 

Calorific value, 19,000 B. T. U. 

Latent heat, small. 

Benzine. Average composition, C=92, H 
=8. 

Source, coal tar. 

Boiling point, 80° Cent. 

Freezing point, 5° Cent. 

Specific gravity, .899. 

Calorific value, 19,000 B. T. U. 

Latent heat, small. 

Alcohol. Average composition, C=32, H=8 
0=35. 

Source, vegetable matter, principally corn, 
beets, potatoes, sugar cane. 

Boiling point, 70° Cent. 

Specific gravity, .806. 

Calorific value, 12,600 B. T. U. 

Latent heat, considerable. 

Tar Benzol. Average composition, C=92, 
H=8. 

Source, a by-product in the manufacture of 
coke. 

Boiling point, 80° to 120° Cent. 

Specific gravity, .895. 


The Automobile Handbook 


317 


Calorific value, 19,000 B. T. TJ. 

Latent lieat, small. 

Kerosene. Average composition, C—85, 
H=15. 


Source, petroleum. ‘ 

Boiling point, 150° to 300° Cent. 

Specific gravity, .800 to .825. 

Calorific value, 19,000 B. T. U. 

Latent heat, considerable. 

Motor Spirit, Naphtha, Benzoline, Benzine. 

Average compositnon, C=85, H 15. 

Source, petroleum and shale. 

Boiling point, 60° to 160° Cent. 


Specific gravity, .750. 

Calorific value, 19,000 B. T. U. 

Latent heat, appreciable. 

Methyl Alcohol, Wood Spirit, Naphtha, 
erage composition, C=38, H=12, O o0. 
Source, the distillation of wood. 
Boiling point, 66° Cent. 

Specific gravity, .812. 

Calorific value, 9,600 B. T. TJ. 


Av- 


Latent heat, appreciable. 

Acetylene Ethene. Average composition, 
C=92, H=8. 

Calorific value, 25,000 B. 1. 



318 


The Automobile Handbook 

J 

Fuel Mixture. The fuel finally used in the 
cylinders of the internal combustion automobile 
engine is composed of varying proportions of 
air and the vapor of one or more of the liquid 
fuels. The pure vapor of any of these liquids 
does not form a combustible mixture until mixed 
with certain proportions of air, the oxygen nec¬ 
essary for burning being thereby supplied. It 
is the function of the carburetor to vaporize the 
liquid fuel and to then mix with the vapor an 
amount of air which will make a correct mixture. 

Many of the questions and problems entering 
into the question of securing correct mixtures 
fiom present day fuels are of vital interest 
because of the important bearing this feature has 
upon operating costs. In the. following pages 
is given much of the information which is neces¬ 
sary in studying the relations of the fuel vapors 
to the air in the mixture, also a number of 
tables of data pertaining to the heating values 
and characteristics of the vapors and gases in 
common use for this purpose. 

Air, Relation of to Gasoline. Owing to the 
fact that automobile gasoline is composed of 
various percentages of the several available 
tractions of hydrocarbon distillates, it is not 
possible to fix an exact basis for the relative 
proportions of air to fuel. However, the aver¬ 
age carbureter is capable of altering the ratio 
of air to fuel over broad ranges, and it is not 
necessary to know the exact ratio in order to 


The Antoynobile Handbook 


319 


attain the best results. But it is necessary to 
approximate an average ratio as nearly as pos¬ 
sible in designing and adjusting carbureters in 
order to allow for these variations up and 
down. 

The mixture becomes explosive when 10,000 
volumes of air dilute one volume of gasoline, 
but the best results follow when the ratio is 
one volume of liquid gasoline to 8,000 volumes 
of air. With one of gasoline to 3,500 of air the 
mixture is non-explosive. 

The proper proportions, from a theoretical 
standpoint, are not always best for practical 
use because a mixture slightly weaker than the 
one found by calculation is more economical in 
the use of gasoline. Such a mixture, of course, 
reduces the power slightly, but the proportion 
of power lost is much less than the proportion 
of gasoline saved. Because of the differences in 
speed of the mixture and the differences in the 
volume being admitted to the engine, it is almost 
impossible to secure a proportion that will be 
uniformly satisfactory over a range of all engine 
speeds. A larger volume of mixture, at a slow 
speed, may be required in ascending a hill at 
ten miles per hour than in traveling on a level 
road at three times this speed. In the latter 
case, the velocity of the mixture will, however, 
be much greater. It is best to secure a mixture 
that will give satisfactory results from the 
standpoint of power at low and medium speeds 
rather than at high. 




320 


The Automobile Handbook 


Air, Relation of in Gasoline Mixture. Gas¬ 
oline is a somewhat uncertain mechanical mix¬ 
ture of several hydrocarbon (fractional) distil¬ 
lates, in which the compound “hexane” is sup¬ 
posed to be the major portion. This compound 
answers to the formula C 6 II 14 , the products of 
combustion of which will be C 0 2 + C 0 + H 2 0, 
in which C 0 will not be found if the combus¬ 
tion is complete. A final expression of complete 
combustion will be as follows: 

2 C 6 H 14 X 19 0 2 = 12 C 0 2 + 14 H 2 0. 

Taking into account the atomic weight of the 
elements, the volume of air required in the com¬ 
plete combustion of 1 pound of hexane may be 
set down as follows—atomic weight of the ele¬ 


ments involved: 

Carbon (C). 12 

Hydrogen (IT). 1 

Oxygen (0). 16 


The molecular weight of C 6 H 14 = 6 X 12 -f- 
14X1 = 86; the required oxygen will weigh 
(molecular) 19 X 16 = 304; the ratio of the 
compound hexane, then, to the combining oxy¬ 
gen will be 

304 

Ratio =-- = 3.54, nearly. 

86 

Considering 1 pound of hexane, the weight 
of oxygen required for its complete combustion 
will be equal to the ratio as above given, i.e., 
3.54 pounds, nearly. 

Sim-e the oxygen is taken from the air, it i& 







The Automobile Handbook - 321 


necessary to consider dry air in the attempt to 
determine as to the weight of the same. This 
air, under a pressure of 1 atmosphere, and at a 
temperature of 60 degrees Fahrenheit contains 
0.23 pounds of oxygen, hence the required air= 

3.54 

-= 15.39, in pounds. 

.23 

Gasoline, Thermo-dynamic Properties oe 
Gasoline and Air. The following table, 10, 
gives the thermo-dynamic properties of gaso¬ 
line and air, and may be of interest, in view of 
the fact that information on this subject is 
sparse, and most of that only theoretical, or 
empirical deductions. 

This table gives the explosive force in pounds 
per square inch of mixtures of gasoline vapor 
and air, varying from 1 to 13 down to 1 to 4, 
also the lapse of time between the point of igni¬ 
tion and the highest pressure in pounds per 
square inch attained by the expanding charge 
of mixture. The tests from which the results 
given were obtained, were made with a charge 
of mixture at atmospheric pressure, so as to 
more accurately note the results, as the mixture 
takes much longer after ignition to attain its 
highest pressure, and is slower also in expand¬ 
ing. 

It may be well to remember that there are no 
more heat-units, and consequently no more foot¬ 
pounds of work in a mixture of gasoline and air, 





322 


The Automobile Handbook 


under 5 atmospheres compression, than under 1 
atmosphere compression. 

Flanged or ribbed air-cooled motors will ap¬ 
proach the figures given in the table for the 
initial explosive force for the varying compres¬ 
sions, very closely, while thermal-siphon wa¬ 
ter-cooled motors will come within about 20 
per cent of these results, and pump and radiat¬ 
ing coil cooled motors will come within about 
30 per cent. While it appears that the proper 
thing to do would be to run hot, the repair bill 
will more than offset its efficiency. The last two 
columns in the table give the temperature of the 
burning gases, the first of the two columns the 
actual temperature with the accompanying mix¬ 
ture of gasoline and air, and the second the 
theoretical temperatures, or temperature to 
which the burning mixture should attain, if 
there were no heat losses. 


TABLE 10. 

THERMO-DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF GASOLINE AND AIR. 


Gasoline, 
Vapor and 
Air. 

Time in 
Seconds 
between 
Ignition 
and 

Highest 

Pres¬ 

sure.* 

Explosive Force in 
Pounds per sq. in. 

Compression 
in Atmospheres. 

3 

4 

5 

1 to 13 

1 to 11 

1 to 9 

1 to 7 

1 to 5 

1 to 4 

0.28 

0.18 

0.13 

0.07 

0.05 

0.07 

156 

183 

234 

261 

270 

240 

208 

244 

312 

348 

360 

320 

260 

305 

390 

435 

450 

400 


Temperature 
of Combustion 
in Degrees 
Fahrenheit.* 


Actual. 


Theo¬ 

retical. 


1857 

3542 

2196 

4010 

2803 

4806 

3119 

6001 

3226 

6854 

2965 

5517 


♦At atmospheric pressure. 





























The Automobile Handbook 


323 


Heat of Combustion. The quantity of heat 
generated by the complete combustion of vari¬ 
ous gases and petroleum products is known 
as the heat value of the fuel, and represents the 
maximum amount of heat that can be obtained, 
from a given .quantity of the fuel. No accurate 
rule has yet been devised by which to compute 
the heat value of any chemical compound from 
its formula and the heat values of the elements 
of which it is composed. Hence, the heat values 
of compounds must be found by a separate de¬ 
termination for each one in the laboratory. The 
heat developed by the combustion of some of 
the commoner fuels and gases is given in Table 
11. In the case of carbon, the heat developed 
by its complete combustion, forming C0 2 , and 
the heat of its partial combustion to CO, are 
given; also the heat of combustion of CO to 
C0 2 . 

Heat Value of a Mixture. The heat value 
of a mixture may be found from the heat val¬ 
ues of the substances of which it is composed 
and the percentage of each substance. If h lr 
h 2 , h 3 , etc., represent the heat values of the 
substances forming the mixture, and p 17 p 2 , p 3 r 
etc. represent the percentage of each substance, 
the heat value of the mixture will be repre¬ 
sented by the following formula: 

hmr^Pilq-j^hs+Pshs+etc. 

Example.—A certain gas has the following 
composition: 




MIXTURES OF AIR AND GASES, AND RES'UITING HEAT OF COMBUSTION. 


324 


The Automobile Handbook 


a 

«~.2 

o 

sj 

Wg 

o 


^ .2°«„ 

^ 0,3 2 ea «© 


pq 


>£0 


• r>« 

• CM 

: co 


• CM 

: co 


rH GO O CO CD 

o l>^00 ^ 

HHHCOH 


p 'O’os 
. t- a a 
H 

« ^ ° 


• o o o »o 

• O O O oo 

• O T* CO CO 

• csf ^ t#T V 

• CO 1-1 


• co CO CO CO 1 —I 
■NNiOOOW 

• O rJH CO 1“< Tt< 

• co r-T csf oo i—r 

• CM CM CM r-H CM 


s ° rt C 3 3 

2 g ra 
S, aj Jg <u 


to 


o o 
oo o 

CO os 

^ o 

CM r* 


CO 


o o o o • o 

os O os o • ^ 

t"» CM ^ • tO 

t-h os o • 

CM CM iO • CO 


5'°’”' ° 

.tf.g s fl s 

^ 3s §0 
tf 


CQ 

no 

a 

o 

o 

Ph 


• o 

• oo 


• ^ 
• CO 


oo 


■ o o 

• ^ OS 




• o • 

• o • 

• 00 • 

• is. 

• to 

4.00 

3.43 

• oo • 

• OO 

• CM 00 CO os 

• co • 

• CO 

• to CM CO • • 




• CM • 

• CM 

• OS CO CO H 

• r-H i-H 



.fa 

< 


■ to 


• © O to to to 

• CM CO CO CM 


ro o 

TO • ' 


•~o fe 


o . . Ji O 

- »H 


CD 

a^ 


o 

j; a w - 
o 0 -fa £ 
^ o <jPh 
^ P-i 

T-H C3 


Q, fa 

bo £ 

O g 

a <» 


-4-» 

o 

CD 

Ph 

0 

CM 

CO 

11.88 

13.55 

189.80 

. 

• to 

• to 

• CO 

• iH 

O CO to CO 

CONiOONCD 

OO CO CO CM Sjl 

CM 1—1 1-H 

» H 

-Q 


O 

£- o 

• !>■ 

CM ^ OS 

o 

O 

o 

CM 

oo • 

• 

rH cONOSxfN 

CO 

i—l 

CM 00 • 

• CM 

COCM CM th ^ cO 



—- 

• i—i 

WHH i—1 


So* O . -. 

• SPO® ®'-3 o 

O.Pr? 

£ 


O 

o-g 


no 

fl 

2 

O 

Ph 


r- cm 

CM ^ CO 
OS OO to 

OO o 
o o o 


• T* 

• o 

• 

• 

• o 


CO CO O OS CO 1—i 
CM CO CO CO CO to 
CO to OO CO CO CM 
CM OO CM l>» 

^ O O O CM O 


.2 

*43 

o 

a 

o 


a 

o 

a 

<D 

M 

o 


a 


o 
> 
£ o 

52 

O 


> 

OS 

: + o + 

ft-p 


CO 

CO 

co 

II 

O 

xS 


CO 1—I 
CM CM 


v-> 

WO§oS 
0 » + 

3' 1_ L'xiS 

*WT+0~^hK«WM 

inOOOh OOOOO 


c* e*Q 
ciCCOrs 

OOOioO 
C) CO . O 

+++H 

n oo 

2 W CO HH 
« NM I|W 

II » "o 11 

qOQioO 

fa DNrH lO 


,+++++ 


O) 

o 

pH 


O* 
^ 0 

a <d 
8 bO 
bC O 

-fa 

02 ; 


:o : 

, r -\ N 

•°o 

■ aTO 

•'S - 
•'R -2 
W : :§^ 

gwuJI 

o eT o a 
£ o o o o 

^ ^ h t. h 

c3 cfl 03 c3 

Woooo 


m. 


u 

<0 

O .. 

-td 

cq H rt 


ocS® °? 
g g°. £ S' 
I « S of 

03 N 

Qjjqjq C q 

1H ^ O 

SWW( 33 < 







































































The Automobile Handbook 


325 


Constituents of Gas 1 er 

Hydrogen, II . 

Marsh gas, .. L 

Acetylene, C2H2 . 

What is the heat value per cubic foot of the 
mixture ? 

Solution.—Beferring to Table If, the heat 
values per cubic foot of these gases are seen to 
be 327, 1,010 and 1,464 B. T. U., respectively. 
Apply the formula just given. Pi — .20, p 2 = 
.70, and p 3 = .10. Also, h x = 327, h 2 = l,010 r 
and h 3 = 1,464. Substituting, hm = .20 X 327 
+ .70 X 1,010 + .10 X 1,464 = 65.4 + 707 + 
146.4 == 918.8 B. T. U. Ans. 

Temperature of Combustion. The theoret¬ 
ical temperature of the combustion of a given 
fuel can easily be calculated. Making no al¬ 
lowance for losses of heat, and supposing that 
just enough air is furnished for the combustion, 
burning carbon should have a temperature 
about 4,940° above zero; while burning hydro¬ 
gen should have a temperature about 5,800° 
above zero. In practice, these temperatures 
are never attained, on account of heat losses. 

Loss of Heat. The loss of heat from any hot 
object is accomplished in three ways: by con¬ 
vection, by conduction and by radiation. In 
all practical cases a body loses heat by a com¬ 
bination of these processes. 

When heat is produced in the cylinder by the 
combustion of the gases, the piston is at or near 
the upper dead center; that is, it remains nearly 
stationary when the heat is greatest and when 






326 


The Automobile Handbook 


the heat loss per unit area of inclosing 1 walls is 
most rapid. 

Under the usual conditions of ignition, the 
gas contained in the cylinder must be set into 
violent motion by the spread of the flame 
through it, and this motion will aid the dissipa¬ 
tion of the heat in the gas to the containing 
walls. So convection will be an important fac¬ 
tor in the process and perhaps the principal 
factor. Perhaps a part of the gain in power 
which has resulted, in some instances, from the 
use of multiple ignition may be due to violent 
motion of the gas. Practically all air cooled 
motors have their valves in the head, so the 
charge is contained between the cylinder walls 
and the piston head. 

The heat absorbed by the water-jacket is 
equal to the weight of water passed through the 
jacket multiplied by the temperature range; or, 
in other words, it is the difference between the 
temperature of the water when it enters the 
water-jacket and that of the water when it 
leaves the jacket. For instance, if the tempera¬ 
ture of the entering water is 50° and that of 
escaping water is 180°, the temperature range 
is 180 50 = 130°. Then, if the weight of 

the water passing through the jacket in 1 hour 
is 100 pounds, the heat carried away is 100 X 
130 = 13.000 British thermal units. 


The Automobile Handbook 


327 


Fuel Feed, Vacuum. 

The Stewart vacuum gasoline tank, Figs. 148 
to 152, consists of two chambers. The upper 
one is the float or filling chamber, and the lower 
one is the reservoir or empty chamber. The 
upper chamber is connected with the intake 
manifold of the motor, and also with the main 
gasoline supply tank. The lower or emptying 
chamber is connected with the carburetor. Be¬ 
tween these two chambers is a valve. The 
suction of the piston on the intake stroke creates 
a vacuum in the upper chamber. This closes 
the valve between the two chambers, and in 
turn draws gasoline from the main supply tank. 
The gasoline, being sucked or pumped up into 
this upper chamber, operates a float valve. 
When this valve has risen to a certain mark 
it automatically shuts off the suction valve and 
opens an air valve. This open air valve creates 
an atmospheric condition in the upper chamber 
and opens the valve into the lower chamber, and 
the gasoline immediately commences to flow to 
the lower or emptying chamber. The lower 
chamber is always open to outside atmospheric 
conditions, so that the filling of the upper cham¬ 
ber in no way interferes with an even, uninter¬ 
rupted flow of gasoline from this lower cham¬ 
ber to the carburetor. 

A is the suction valve for opening and clos¬ 
ing the connection to the manifold and through 
which a vacuum is extended from the engine 
manifold to the gasoline tank. 



328 


The Automobile Handbook 




to carbon 

RETOR 


Fig. 148 


TO INTAKE j 
MANIFOLD*^ 

R A 


FROM 

GASOLINE 

TANK 


FLOAT VALVE 

<5 


rUReER 112- 
CHAMBER-: 


LOWER 

CHAMBER 


Stewart Vacuum Fuel Feed Tank 


X 




















































The Automobile Handbook 329 

B is the atmospheric valve, and permits or 
prevents an atmospheric condition in the up¬ 
per chamber. See Fig. 149. When the suc¬ 



tion valve A is open and the suction is drawing 
gasoline from the main reservoir, this atmos¬ 
pheric valve B is closed. When the suction 










































Fig. 150 

Arrangement of Parts of Vacuum Fuel Feed 


330 The Automobile Handbook 


















The Automobile Handbook 


331 


valve A is closed, then the atmospheric valve 
B must be open, as an atmospheric condition is 

necessary in the upper tank in order to allow 
the fuel to flow through the flapper valve H 

into the lower chamber. 

C is a pipe connecting tank to manifold of 
engine. 

D is a pipe connecting vacuum tank to the 
main gasoline supply tank. 

E is a lever to which the two coil springs S 
are attached. This lever is operated by the 
movement of the float G. 

P is a short lever, which is operated by the 
lever E and which in turn operates the valves 
A and B. 

G is the float. 

H is flapper valve in the outlet T. This 
flapper valve is held closed by the action of 
the suction whenever the valve A is open, but 
it opens when the float valve has closed the 
vacuum valve A and opened the atmospheric 
valve B. 

J is a pet cock for drawing water or sedi¬ 
ment out of the reservoir. This may also be 
used for drawing gasoline for priming or clean¬ 
ing purposes. 

K is a line to the carburetor extended on in¬ 
side of the tank to form a pocket for trapping 
water and sediment which may be drawn out 
through pet cock J. 

L is a channel space between inner and outer 
shells, and connects with air vent R, '"thus main- 


332 The Automobile Handbook 

taining an atmospheric condition in the lower 
chamber at all times, and thereby permitting 
an uninterrupted flow of gasoline to the carbu¬ 
retor. 

M is the guide for float. 

R is an air vent over the atmospheric valve. 
See Fig. 151. The effect of this is the same 
as if the whole tank were elevated and is for 
the purpose of preventing an overflow of gaso¬ 
line should the position of the car ever be such 



Upper Connections of Vacuum Tank 
as would raise the gasoline supply tank higher 
than the vacuum tank. Through this tube also 
the lower, or reservoir chamber, is continually 
open to atmospheric pressure, so that the flow 
of gasoline from this lower chamber to the car¬ 
buretor is always allowed. 

T is the outlet located at the bottom of the 
float reservoir in which is the flapper valve H. 

The flapper valve is ground on its seat and 
should be trouble-proof. A small particle of 
dirt getting under the flapper valve might pre- 










The Automobile Handbook 333 

vent it from seating absolutely air-tight and 
thereby render the tank inoperative: In order 
to determine whether or not the flapper valve 
is out of commission, first plug up air vent; 
then detach tubing from bottom of tank to 
carburetor. Start motor and apply finger to 
this opening. If suction is felt continuously, 
then it is evident that there is a leak in the 
connection between the tank and the main gas¬ 
oline supply or else the flapper valve is being 
held off its seat and is letting air into the tank 
instead of drawing gasoline. 

Any troublesome condition of the flapper 
valve can be remedied by removing tank cover, 
then lift out the inner tank. Fig. 152. The 
flapper valve will be found screwed into the 
bottom of this inner tank. 

Coupling and elbow connections should be 
kept screwed down tight. Care should be taken 
that tubing contains no sharp flat bends that 
might retard the gasoline flow. 

Gasoline for priming or cleaning purposes 
can be obtained by opening pet cock. 

To make certain that the tank is not at fault 
in case of trouble, take out the inner tank en¬ 
tirely. This will leave only the outer shell, 
which will then be nothing more than an or¬ 
dinary gravity tank. Fill this tank with gas¬ 
oline and start to run. If you still have trouble 
it will be apparent that the fault lies elsewhere 
and not in the tank. 


334 


The Automobile Handbook 


Carburetor pops and spits are due to im¬ 
proper carburetor adjustments. Running the 
engine at low speed with an open throttle for 
any length of time might not produce sufficient 
suction to till the tank when empty. But this 
condition might take place because of dirt or 
foreign matter getting in and clogging the gas¬ 
oline feed tube. 

If you have any doubt as to the tank being 
full of gasoline, it is only necessary to close the 
throttle and the suction of the motor will then 
fill the tank almost instantly. 

To fill the tank, should it ever become en¬ 
tirely empty, close the engine throttle and turn 
the engine over a few revolutions. This will 
create sufficient vacuum in the tank to fill it. 
If the tank has been allowed to stand empty 
for a considerable time and does not easily fill 
when the engine is turned over, look for dirt or 
sediment under the flapper valve H, or the 
valve may be dry. Removing the plug W in 
the top and squirting a little gasoline into the 
tank will wash the dirt from this valve; also 
wet the valve and cause the tank to work im¬ 
mediately. This flapper valve sometimes gets 
a black carbon pitting on it, which may tend 
to hold it from being sucked tight on its seat. 
In this case the valve should be scraped with a 
knife. 

If the motor speeds up when the vacuum tank 
is drawing gasoline from the main supply it 
shows that either the carburetor mixture is too 


The Automobile Handbook 


335 


rich, or the connections are so loose that it i* 
drawing air into the manifold. There should 



Fig. 152 

Shell of Vacuum Tank 


be no perceptible change of engine speed when 
the tank is operating. 









































































































































336 


The Automobile Handbook 


Gases, Expansion of. All gases expand 
equally, 1/273 part of their volume for each 
degree of temperature, Centigrade, of 1/491 
part of their volume for each degree of temper¬ 
ature, Fahrenheit. 


Gasoline, How Obtained. Benzine, Gasoline, 
Kerosene and the kindred hydro-carbons are 
products of crude petroleum. 

They are separated from the crude oil by a 
process of distillation. The process is very sim¬ 
ilar to that of generating steam from water. 

Crude petroleum subjected to heat will give 
off in the form of vapor such products as Ben¬ 
zine, Gasoline and Kerosene, etc. The degrees 
of heat at which these products are separated 
are comparatively low. Various degrees of heat 
will separate the distinct products. As a means 
of illustration, it may be said that the crude oil 
when raised to certain temperatures gives off 
vapors which when cooled liquefy into oils. 

Viscosity of Gasoline. It is a mistake to 
assume that because gasoline does not thicken 
up, it is not retarded in its flow through the noz¬ 
zle of the carbureter. Taking gasoline having a 


specific gravity of 0.71 the quantity that will 
pass through the nozzle of a carbureter under a 
given pressure will increase as the temperature 
is increased, as shown in the following table: 


Temp, degrees F. 

50 ° . 

59 ° . 

68 ° .. 

77 ° . 

86 ° .. 

95 ° . 


Relative Flow. 

. 1 

. 1.073 

. 1.145 

. 1.212 

. 1.27 

. 1.335 










The Automobile Handbook 


337 


Since carbureter nozzles are not readily ad¬ 
justable, nor with any degree of certainty, it 
follows from the above that the influence of tem¬ 
perature upon the weight of fuel ejected will 
most certainly affect the efficiency of the car¬ 
bureter. This source of trouble goes to indi¬ 
cate that some means of maintaining a constant 
temperature is of the greatest advantage, and 
in a measure it argues for the adaptation of 
water (hot) jacketing, not around the depres¬ 
sion chamber, as is usually the practice, but 
around the gasoline (float) bowl, in order to 
maintain a constant temperature of the liquid 
gasoline as it flows through the nozzle. 

Gasoline Explosions. There are two entirely 
different kinds of explosion, which would un¬ 
doubtedly both be referred to as gasoline ex¬ 
plosions. The real gasoline explosion is the 
kind taking place in the cylinder of a gasoline 
motor, in which heat and pressure are suddenly 
produced by the combustion of gasoline vapor 
in air. The other kind of explosion referred to 
may be explained as follows: 

If a tank of gasoline be placed on a woodpile 
and the latter set on fire, the heat would 
raise a pressure in the tank, which would rap¬ 
idly increase and the tank would finally explode 
from the pressure. The gasoline would then 
be thrown in all directions, and, owing to its 
superheated condition, the greater part of it 
at least would instantly vaporize, mix with the 



338 


The Automobile Handbook 


air of the atmosphere and be ignited by the 
flame which caused the explosion. 

Gasoline Fires, Extinguishing. A number of 
fires have been caused by leaky gasoline pipes 
on automobiles, and many persons would like to 
know of chemicals which can be used to put 
out such fires. Water is exceedingly danger¬ 
ous to use, and it is not always possible to get 
at the fire to smother it with wet rags or waste. 

In case of fire due to gasoline, use fine earth, 
flour or sand on top of the burning liquid. 

A dry powder can be used for this purpose 
which will extinguish the fire in a few seconds. 
It is made as follows: Common salt, 15 parts—• 
sal-ammoniac, 15 parts—bicarbonate of soda, 
20 parts. The ingredients should be thoroughly 
mixed together and passed through a fine mesh 
sieve to secure a homogeneous mixture. 

If by any chance a tank of gasoline takes fire 
at a small outlet or leak, run to the tank and 
not away from it, and either blow or pat the 
flame out. Never put water on burning gaso¬ 
line or oil, the gasoline or oil will float on top 
of the water and the flames spread much more 
rapidly. 

Several gallons of ammonia, thrown in the 
room with such force as to break the bottles 
which contain it, will soon smother the strong¬ 
est fire if the room be kept closed. 

Gears, Horsepower Transmitted by. The fol¬ 
lowing formulas will give the horsepower that 


The Automobile Handbook 


339 


may be transmtited by gears with cut teeth of 
involute form and of various metals. 


H.P = Horsepower. 

P = Pitch diameter in inches. 
C = Circular pitch in inches* 
p = Width of face in inches. 
R = Revolutions per minute. 


PXCXFXR 

p—_- (Annealed tool steel.) (1) 


90 


H.P=- 


PXCXPXR 

140 

PXCXFXR 


(Mach, steel or Phos¬ 
phor Bronze.) (2) 


H.P=- 


410 

PXCXFXP 


H.P=- 


(Cast Brass.) 


(Cast Iron.) 


(3) 


(4) 


550 


Example: Required, the horsepower which 
a tool steel pinion, 2 inches pitch diameter, 1 
inch face and No. 10 diametral pitch, will 
transmit at 900 revolutions per minute. 

Answer: From the table the circular pitch 
corresponding to No. 10 diametral pitch is 

•The circular pitch corresponding to any J'th? dilm'- 

ber, may be found by dividing the constant 3.1416 by the main 

Example: What Is the circular pitch in inches corresponding 

40 5nswe d n “rhe a re P sun h of dividing 3.1416 by 6 gives 0.524 inches 
as the required circular pitch. 











340 


The Automobile Handbook 


0.314. Then by Formula No. 1, 2X0.314X1X 
900 equals 565.2. This, divided by 90, gives 
5.29 horsepower. 

Gear, Internal-Epicyclic. It is often desired 
to ascertain the speed of rotation of the differ¬ 
ent members of this form of gearing. To cal¬ 
culate their speeds, the following formulas are 
given, which, by reference to the letters desig¬ 



nating the different parts in Figure 153, may be 
readily solved. 

Let R be the revolutions per minute of the 
disk or spider carrying the pinions D. 

Let N be revolutions per minute of the gear 
E. 

Let G be the revolutions per minute of the 
internal gear F. 

When the internal gear F is locked and gear 
E rotating, the speed in revolutions per minute 
of the disk or spider carrying the pinions D is 




The Automobile Handbook 


341 


E 

R = N - 

E + F 

If the internal gear be locked and the spider 
carrying the pinions D be rotated, then the 
speed in revolutions per minute for the gear E 
will be 

E +F 

N = R - 

E 

If the spider carrying the pinions D be held 
rigid and the gear E be rotated, the speed in 
revolutions per minute for the internal gear F is 

N X E 

G =- 

F 

If the pitch diameter of the gears is not read¬ 
ily obtainable, the number of teeth in each gear 
may be used instead, as the result will be ex¬ 
actly the same. 

It will be recognized that this is the form of 
gearing employed in the older forms of plane¬ 
tary transmission devices. Newer types use no 
internal toothed gears. 

Horsepower. The actual horsepower of an 
engine can only be determined by making a 
test with suitable brakes or dynamometers. 
This method would give the actual brake horse¬ 
power. In order to allow ready calculation, the 
Society of Automobile Engineers' formula is 







342 


The Automobile Handbook 


used and is generally recognized. The bore or 
diameter of the cylinder is first squared; that 
is, the size in inches is multiplied by itself. This 


TABLE 12 

HORSEPOWER OF GASOLINE ENGINES 


Bore 

2% . 

(S. A. E. Four Cycle Formula) 

Inn 1 ' 6 -, cyl - 8 cyl. 

12 cyl, 

2% . 


i-O.U 

21).0 

30.0 

2 y 8 . 


18.2 

24.2 

36.3 

3 .. 


19.8 

26.4 

39.6 

sy 8 . 


21.6 

28.8 

43.2 

3% . 


28.4 

31.2 

46.9 

3% . 


^5.4 

33.8 

50.7 

3 y 2 . 


Z7.6 

36.5 

54.7 

3% - 


29.4 

39.2 

58.8 

3 % .... 


0 1. o 

42.0 

63.1 

3 Vs . 


06.6 

45.0 

67.5 

4 . 


ob.2 

48.3 

72.4 

4% . 


00.4 

51.2 

76.8 

4i4 . 


40.8 

54.5 

91.7 

4% - 


43.4 

57.8 

86.7 

4% . 


45.9 

61.2 

91.9 

4% . 


43.6 

64.8 

97.2 

4% . 


Ol.o 

68.4 

102.7 

4 % . 


54.2 

72.2 

108.3 

5 . 


57.0 

60.0 

76.0 

114.1 

5% . 


80.0 

120.0 

51/2 . 


bo.Z 

72.7 

88.2 

132.3 



97.0 

145.4 


Note : Above powers are calculated for pis. 
ton speed of 1000 feet per minute 


number is then multiplied by the number of 
cylinders and the result divided by 2y 2 Thus 
for an engine with 5-inch bore: 5x5=25 If 
of 4 cylinders, 25x4=100, and 100 divided by 
2^2 gNes the result as % ^ horsepower. In order 
to secure approximately wrect results, the en- 
gine is supposed to be o aerating at 1 000 feet 
per minute piston speed. 
























The Automobile Handbook 


343 


Many formulae, other than that known as the 
S. A. E., are used in calculating the power of 
internal combustion engines, and it is upon some 
of these that the S. A. E. rating was originally 
based. The methods most used in making such 
calculations, either for four cycle or two cycle 
engines are explained in the following pages. 

Horsepower of Explosive Motors. The first 
requisite is to find the number of power strokes 
made per minute by the motor. In a single 
cylinder motor of the four-cycle type there is 
one power stroke for every two revolutions, 
and if the motor has four cylinders there is 
one power stroke for every revolution of the 
crank shaft. The number of power strokes then 
may be found by the following formula (refer¬ 
ring to a four-cycle motor) : 

C 

N = —XS 
4 

in which N = Number of power strokes per 
minute. 

C = Number of cylinders. 

S = Angular velocity of crank shaft in rev¬ 
olutions per minute. 

Having ascertained the number of power 
strokes per minute, the horsepower is found by 
the formula, 

PLAN 
H.P =-- 


33,000 



344 


The Automobile Handbook 


P = Mean effective pressure (M. E. P.). 

L = Length of stroke in feet. 

A = Area of piston in sq. in. 

N = Number of power strokes per minute. 
This formula does not discriminate between 
mechanical friction and losses in “ fluid ” fric¬ 
tion. A formula that is more arbitrary and 
that fits the majority of cases, requiring only 
the use of a few facts, such as diameter of cyl¬ 
inder, length of stroke, and revolutions per min¬ 
ute, is presented as follows: 


H.Przr 


in which 


VXN 

10,000 


V — volume of cylinder in cu. inches. 

N = number of power strokes per min. 

The constant used varies from 9,000 to 14,000 
depending upon certain types of engines; 10,000 
being an average figure for four cycle engines. 
Ihe brake horsepower will be from 65 to 85 per 
cent of the result obtained; 80 per cent may be 
taken as an average. As an example we may 
take a four-cycle, four-cylinder motor 414-in. 
bore and 4%-in. stroke making 1,200 power 
strokes per minute. Volume (V) of cylinder 
equals area of piston 15.9 sq. in. X length of 
stroke 4%=71.55 cu.' in., and multiplying this 
by i, 200 (N) and dividing the product bv 10*- 
000 gives 8.05 H.P. Taking 80 per cent of this 
as the brake horsepower the result is 6.44 IT P. 



The Automobile Handbook 


345 - 


From a theoretical standpoint a two-cycle ex¬ 
plosive motor should not only have as great a 
speed, but also be capable of developing almost 
twice the power that a four-cycle motor does. 
It is a fact nevertheless that its actual perform¬ 
ance is far different. 

The horsepower of a two-cycle motor may be 
calculated from the following formula, 

D 2 XSXN 


H.P=- 

21,000 


in which 

D=diameter of cylinder in inches. 

S=stroke of piston in inches. 

N=number of revs, per minute. 

Example: Required, the horsepower of a two- 
cycle motor of 4!/2 inches bore and stroke, with 
a speed of 900 revolutions per minute. 

Answer: The square of the bore multiplied 
by the stroke is equal to 91.125, which multi¬ 
plied by 900, and divided by 21,000, gives 3.91 
as the required horsepower. The results given 
by the above examples agree very closely with 
those obtained from actual practice. 

Horsepower, Electrical. One electrical horse¬ 
power is equal to the current in amperes multi¬ 
plied by the electro-motive force or voltage of 
the circuit and divided by 746. 

Let C be the current in amperes and E the 
voltage of the circuit. If E. H. P. be the re¬ 
quired electrical horsepower, then 




346 


The Automobile Handbook 


EXC 
E.H.P=- 

746 

In practice with motors of small power, 1,000 
watts are necessary to deliver one mechanical 

or brake horsepower at the driving shaft of the 

motor. 

✓ 

If the actual or brake horsepower of an elec¬ 
tric motor be known, the efficiency of the motor 
may be readily found by the following formula : 

If E be the voltage of the circuit and C the 
current in amperes consumed by the motor, let 
B. H. P be the brake horsepower of the motor 
and e the efficiency of the motor, then 

B.II.P X 746 


EXC 







The Automobile Handbook 


347 


Ignition Systems. 

Ignition. In order that an explosive motor 
may operate economically, and with the highest 
percentage of efficiency, it is absolutely neces¬ 
sary that two objects shall be attained, viz.: A 



Fig. 154 

Coil and Timer Ignition With Storage Battery 

correct mixture of the gasoline and air, and that 
this mixture be correctly ignited at the proper 
time. 
























































,348 


The Automobile Handbook 



C°il and Timer With Dry Cells. A, Switch. 
Dry Cells. C, Condenser. D, Timer. E 
tacts. F, Armature. G, Core of Coil H 

mary Winding. I, High Tension Winding 
Spark Plug. 


B, 

Con- 

Pri- 

J, 



Fig. 15 6 


Coil Vibrator Principle, 
ture of Coil Magnet. 
Trembler Blade. E, 


A, Core of Coil. B, Arma- 
C, Adjusting Screw. D, 
Contacts. 









































































The Automobile Eandbe^k 


349 



Fig. 157- 

Coil Vibrator Details. A, Adjustment. E, "Tension 
Spring. C, Trembler Blade. D, Holding Screw. 
E, Contact Bridge. F, Contact Blade. \i, Lock¬ 
ing Screw. 















































350 


The Automobile Handbook 



Connecticut Storage Battery Ignition Wiring 


"fCwmoN arfitcH 



Circuits Through Remy Battery Ignition System 














































































The Automobile Handbook 


351 


Induction Coil. Induction is the process by 
which a body having electrical or magnetic 
properties calls forth similar properties in a 
neighboring body without direct contact. This 
property is known as self-induction, and is 
caused by the reaction of different parts of the 
same circuit upon one another, due to varia¬ 
tions in distance or current strength. The cur¬ 
rent produced by an induction coil has a very 
high electro-motive force, and hence great 
power of overcoming resistance. 


r* \ 


-T-r- 


T 




t 

V --^ 

SWITCH “ + BATTER* 


\ 

J 


t4- 




7V“ 

7 


TT 

/ \ 


4 

t 


\ 

v ■*- -* ^ 

SWITCH + -BATTERY 
INDUCTION COIL 


Fig. 160. 

If a current of electricity he caused to flow 
through a straight conductor forming a part of 
a closed electric circuit, lines of force, com¬ 
monly called magnetic whirls or waves, are in¬ 
duced in the air and rotate around the conduc¬ 
tor. . 

If the current of electricity be flowing in the 
circuit and through the straight conductor from 










The Automobile Handbook 


right to left, as shown in the upper view in Fig. 
160, the lines of force or magnetic whirls will 
rotate around the conductor from left to right, 
or in the direction of the hands of a clock. On 
the other hand, if the conditions be reversed 
and the current flows from left to right the lines 
of force or magnetic whirls will rotate from 
right to left, as shown in the lower view in Fig. 
160. The direction of rotation of these lines 
of force or magnetic whirls may be positively 
determined by the use of a galvanometer, an 
electric testing instrument having a needle simi¬ 
lar in appearance to that of an ordinary com¬ 
pass. Upon placing this instrument in the 
path of the lines of force and making and 
breaking the battery circuit by means of the 
switch, the needle of the galvanometer will be 
deflected from its zero point in the direction of 
the rotation of the lines of force. If the direc¬ 
tion of the flow of the electric current through 
the circuit be changed by reversing the poles of 
the battery, the needle of the galvanometer will 
be deflected from its zero point in the opposite 
direction. ’Whether these lines of force or mag¬ 
netic whirls rotate continuously around the wire 
has not been demonstrated. They rotate with 
sufficient force to be tested by the galvanometer 
only until the electric current in the closed 
circuit has reached its maximum value after 
closing the circuit; that is to say, only during 
the infinitesimal space of time required by the 
current to reach its full value or power. 


The Automobile Handbook 


353 


If, instead of a straight conductor, a loop of 
insulated wire, in the form of a circle, be until- 
ized for the passage of - the current, as at A and 
B in Fig. 161, the lines of force will still rotate 
around the wire as shown, their direction being 
dependent on the direction of the electric cur¬ 
rent. If the electrical circuit be provided with 



Fig. 161 


a current reverser, or device for changing the 
battery' connections in the circuit from positive 
to negative and vice versa, the lines of force can 
be made to rotate rapidly first in one direction 
and then in the other, as indicated in Fig. 160. 

Suppose this loop of insulated wire be com¬ 
posed of a great number of turns, it then be- 




























354 


The Automobile Handbook 


comes a coil or closed lielix, and as all the lines 
of force cannot pass between the turns of the 
electrical conductor forming this helix they 
must pass completely through the helix instead 
of rotating around a single loop, as at A and B, 
Fig. 161. If the current flows through the con¬ 
ductor in the direction indicated by the ar¬ 
rows, at C in Fig. 161, and over and around the 
coil in the direction shown, the lines of force 
will flow through the coil towards the observer, 
and complete their path or circuit through the 
air, returning into the coil at the opposite end. 
If the current be reversed and flow around the 
coil in the direction of the hands of a clock, the 
lines of force will flow through the coil in the 
opposite direction, that is, away from the ob¬ 
server, as at D, Fig. 161. 

This form of coil or closed helix may be des¬ 
ignated as the primitive form of an electro¬ 
magnet. When forming part of a closed elec¬ 
tric circuit it possesses the property of magnet¬ 
izing a bar of wrought iron placed within it. 
If a short round bar of wrought iron be placed 
a short distance within the coil, and the battery 
circuit be closed, the iron bar will, if the cur¬ 
rent is sufficiently strong, be sucked or drawn 
into the center of the coil, and a considerable 
effort will be required to withdraw it. 

The object of the bundle of soft iron wires, 
which form the core of any form of spark coil[ 
is to increase the magnetic effect of the lines of 


The Automobile Handbook 


355 


force or magnetic flux, or rather to reduce the 
resistance to their passage through the coil. 

As has been previously stated, when a current 
of electricity flows through a conductor of wire 
forming a coil or closed helix, lines of force are 
induced and flow through, and also around the 
exterior of the coil. In a like manner, when the 
electric circuit is broken, the lines of force sud¬ 
denly reverse their direction, and travel through 
the coil with a tremendous velocity until they 



CONTACT MAKER 

Fig. 162 

Principle of Atwater Kent Battery Ignition 


reach a state of neutralization. During this re¬ 
verse travel of the lines of force through the 
coil, a current of electricity is induced in the 
winding of the coil, but in the opposite direction 
to that in which the battery current was flowing. 
The effect of this induced current, which is of 
far greater intensity or pressure than the bat- 
































356 


The Automobile Handbook 



JUMP SPARK COIL rig. 163 















































































































































































































































The Automobile Handbook 


357 


r' 


tery current which induced it, is to form an arc 
or spark at the breaking point in the circuit. 

Secondary Spark Coil. Fig. 163 shows the 
secondary or jump-spark form of coil. It is 
composed of an iron core and a primary winding 
similar to that described in conjunction with 
Fig. 162, with the addition of an outer winding 
of many turns of fine wire. This wire, of very 
small size, is known as the secondary winding, 
varying in diameter from No. 36 to No. 40 B. & 
S. Gauge, and in length from 5,000 to 10,000 
feet. In the drawing the induction coil is 
shown equipped with an electro-magnet make 
and break, or vibrator device, which is the form 
mostly used for ignition purposes. The other 
form, known as the plain jump-spark coil, has a 
mechanically operated make and break device 
attached to the motor to operate the coil. 

The arc or spark produced at the breaking 
point of the electrical circuit in which the pri¬ 
mary winding of the coil is connected is not 
utilized for ignition purposes in this type of coil. 
When the circuit is broken the sudden reaction 
or backward flow of the lines of force or mag¬ 
netic flux in the iron core produce an induced 
current in the secondary winding, hut in the 
opposite direction to that of the batteiy cur¬ 
rent. This induced current is of so much 
greater intensity and velocity than that induced 
in the primary winding by this same reaction, 
that the arc or spark induced in the secondary 
winding of the coil will jump across a space 




358 The Automobile Handbook 

from one end of the wire to the other, varying 
from Y s inch to as much as 8 or 10 inches in 
length, dependent upon the length of wire in 
the secondary circuit, the electro-motive force 
of the battery and the frequency of the inter¬ 
ruptions or number of times per minute the 
electric circuit is made and broken. 

Referring to Fig. 163 A is the core, B the pri¬ 
mary winding and C the secondary. The two 
coils are held in place upon the core by the 
washers D. The primary wire B is wound over 
a paper tube E, and the secondary wire C is in¬ 
sulated from the primary wire by a mica insu¬ 
lating tube F. The coil proper is enclosed in a 
wood case G. 

The terminals or binding posts on top of the 
case G are connected with the ends of the sec¬ 
ondary wire 1 and 2. The secondary terminals 
are plainly indicated by the letter S'. In the 
base H of the coil case is the condenser J, an 
essential feature of this form of coil, which 
utilizes the induced primary current to produce 

a . greater reactive energy in the secondary 
winding. 

At the right-hand end of the coil and outside 
the casing G is located the electro-magnetic vi- 
brator or trembling device, which automatically 
makes and breaks the primary circuit- The 
end 3 of the primary wire is connected with the 
contact screw K through the bracket L. The 
spring M, carried by the bracket N, with screw 
0, is connected with the terminal or binding 


The Automobile Handbook 


359 


post P, immediately beneath it, by the wire 6 
through the bracket N. The end 4 of the pri- 
mary wire is connected with another terminal 
or binding post P, at the other end of the base 
of the coil. The condenser J is connected 
across the contact points of the screw E and 
the spring M, by the wires 5 and 6 and screws 
Q and X. The condenser is composed of a num¬ 
ber of sheets of tinfoil V, laid between sheets 
of specially insulated paper I, with the opposite 
end of every alternate sheet of tinfoil projecting 
from the paper insulation, as shown. These 
projecting ends are connected together, and by 
the wires 5 and 6 to the contact screw K and 
spring M, respectively, as previously described. 

When the coil is connected in, or forms part 
of a closed electric circuit by means of the ter¬ 
minal or binding posts P, on the base of the 
coil, the current flows through the primary 
winding B. This instantly produces a high de¬ 
gree of magnetism in the core A, and the pole- 
piece T of the core extension R becomes strongly 
magnetic and attracts the iron button W of the 
spring M. This draws the spring M away from 
the end of the screw K, and in consequence 
breaks the electric circuit. This results in the 
demagnetizing of the pole-piece T and the con¬ 
sequent return of the spring M to its normal 
position in contact with the end of the screw K. 
So long as the electric circuit remains closed 
this operation is repeated at a very high rate 
of speed. The effect of this continuous opera- 



360 


The Automobile Handbook 


tion of the coil is to produce an intermittent 
current in the secondary winding of high inten¬ 
sity and velocity. If wires are placed in the 
holes in the small terminals or binding posts on 
the top of the coil and brought within a short 
distance of each other, a stream of sparks will 
pass from one wire to the other in a peculiar zig¬ 
zag manner and emit a loud, crackling noise, 
accompanied by a peculiar odor, caused by the 
formation of ozone through the electro-chemical 
action of the spark. 

Under ordinary circumstances the arc or 
spark which occurs on the breaking of the con¬ 
tact between the platinum points of the screw 
K and spring M would not be utilized, but by 
means of the condenser in the base, which is 
connected to these parts, as before described, 
the static charge of electricity generated by this 
action is stored in the condenser. When the 
contact is again made this stored electric energy 
is given up or discharged by the condenser and 
flows through the primary winding of the /mil 
in connection and in the same direction as the 
battery current and increases the magnetic ef¬ 
fect of the core A enormously. 

The construction and operation of the con¬ 
denser is fully described under the heading 
Condenser. It should be understood that this 
is one of the most important elements of the 
ignition system, whether battery or magneto 
type, and its care should never be neglected if 
efficient ignition is desired. 


The Automobile Handbook 


361 


Commutators, Ignition. The commutator of 
the ignition system of a multi-cylinder gaso¬ 
line motor has a three-fold use: To switch the 
battery current in and out of the electrical cir¬ 
cuit at the proper time—To transfer the bat¬ 
tery current successively from one coil to an¬ 
other—To vary the point or time of ignition 
of the explosive charge in the motor cylinder. 

The commutator of the Ford car is shown below. 
































362 


The Automobile Handbook 


Distributors. Instead of employing a sepa¬ 
rate spark coil for each cylinder of a multi- 
cylinder engine, the primary circuits of which 
are made and interrupted in rotation, a device 
known as the distributer may be used, which 
permits of any number of cylinders being 
sparked from a single coil. In magnetos de¬ 
signed for jump spark ignition of multi-cylin¬ 
der engines the distributer forms part of the 
magneto and is rotated by it. The distributer 
is nothing more than a timer of secondary cur¬ 
rent, and generally consists of a cylindrical shell 
of insulating material, upon the inside of the 
cylindrical surface of which equidistant metal¬ 
lic segments in number equal to the motor cyl¬ 
inders are inserted. A conducting arm rotat¬ 
ing upon a shaft concentric with the insulated 
shell carries a brush, which successively makes 
contact with the segments. The arm is in per¬ 
manent electrical connection with the free sec¬ 
ondary terminal of the coil, and each one of 
the segments is wired to the spark plug of a 
cylinder. 

In the case of four-cylinder motors the 
moving arm is geared at one-half the speed of 
the motor, thus making contact for each cyl¬ 
inder once in each two revolutions or complete 

cycle.* 

In battery ignition systems the distributor 
is mounted directly above the breaker and 
the distributor rotating member is driven from 
the same shaft which operates the breaker. 


The Automobile Handbook 


363 


Ignition—Timing. In timing the ignitioti of 
a motor one should base his operations on one 
particular cylinder, and this should be the most 
accessible one. Let it be assumed that a me¬ 
chanic is required to test or correct the timing 
of a four-cylinder, four-cycle vertical engine. 
He would have to know the order in which the 
cylinders fired, and how to find the firing center 
of No. 1 cylinder. As the operation of the 
valves on most motors may be readily seen, the 
firing center and the order in which the cylin¬ 
ders fire can be easily learned from the action 
of either set. For instance, if on turning the 
motor over slowly the intake valve of No. 1 
cylinder opens and closes, then that of No. 3 
cylinder, and following No. 3 that of No. 4 op¬ 
erates, the mechanic need go no further, for he 
knows that the engine fires 1-3-4-2. The ex¬ 
haust valves, of course, may be used in the same 
way. However, if the valves are entirely en¬ 
closed, as on the Winton cars, open the priming 
or relief cocks, and beginning with cylinder No. 
1 note the order in which the air is forced out 
through the cocks. There are two rules for 
finding which cylinder is on its firing center, 
that are based on the action of the valves; these 
are as follows: When an exhaust valve is open 
the following cylinder is about to fire. When 
an intake valve is open the previous cylinder is 
about to fire. One very simple method of find¬ 
ing the firing center of a cylinder is to open 
the priming cocks of all the cylinders but one, 



364 


The Automobile Handbook 


turn the motor over slowly till compression is 
encountered, open the cock, insert a stiff wire 
till it rests on the piston head, then carefully 
bring the piston to the top of its stroke. The 
cylinder will then be on its firing center. When 
the firing center, and the order in which the cyl¬ 
inders fire are known, all that remains to be 
done in timing an engine is to set the revolving 
segment of the commutator or distributer so 
that a spark will occur in the proper cylinder 
when the spark control lever is advanced about 
one-third or, with the spark control lever fully 
retarded, and the piston about y 2 to 1 inch 
down on the explosion stroke, set the segment 
so that it just begins to make contact. 

Many troubles arise from faulty or defective 
insulation. 

A wire placed too close to an exhaust-pipe 
invariably fails after a time, owing to the insu¬ 
lation becoming burnt by the heat of the pipe. 

A loose wire hanging against a sharp edge 
will invariably chafe through in course of time. 

If the insulation of the coil breaks down it 
cannot be repaired on the road, it should be re¬ 
turned to the makers. A slight ticking is 
usually audible inside the coil when this occurs. 

All wires where joined together should be 
carefully soldered, the joints being afterwards 
insulated with rubber or prepared tape. Never 
make a joint in the secondary wires. See that 
all terminals are tightly screwed up. When 
connecting insulated wire, the insulation must 


The Automobile Handbook 


365 


be removed, so that only the bare wire is at¬ 
tached. Wires sometimes become broken, and 
being loose make only a partial contact. 

Battery terminals frequently become cor¬ 
roded ; they should be covered with vaseline, 
and require periodical cleaning. See that all 
connections at the battery are clean and bright. 

The porcelain of the spark plug may be 
cracked and the current jumping across the 
fracture. The points may be sooty and require 
cleaning. They may be touching and require 
separating, or they may be too far apart. The 
usual distance between the points is about one 
thirty-second of an inch, which is approxi¬ 
mately the thickness of a heavy business card. 

Clean all oil and dirt from the commutator. 
Most commutators are so placed as to give the 
maximum possible opportunity to collect oil 
and dirt. They should always be provided with 
a cover. 

In course of time dry or storage batteries 
will become weak or discharged. Always carry 
an extra set. 

Spanners, oil-cans, tire-pumps, etc., have been 
known to get on the top of the batteries, 
thereby connecting the terminals together and 
causing a short-circuit. 

The platinum contacts of the coil may be¬ 
come corroded. They should be cleaned with a 
small piece of emery cloth or sandpaper. 



366 


The Automobile Handbook 


Ignition, Atwater Kent. This device is de¬ 
signed to draw from a battery, as nearly as 
possible, only the electrical energy necessary 
to ignite the charge, and to keep the batteries 
until the energy remaining in them is too small 
to produce an effective spark. Its principal 
constituent parts are, a jump-spark coil and 
condenser, a primary contact maker, the time 
of which may be advanced or retarded, and a 
high tension distributer. Its distinguishing 
features are—• 

a. But one spark is made for each ignition. 

b. The primary contact, rupture of which 
produces the spark, is exceedingly brief, no 
longer in fact than is actually required to build 
up the magnetism in the core of the spark coil. 

c. The duration of this contact is independ¬ 
ent of the engine speed in the same way that 
the contact of the ordinary coil vibrator is. 

d. Contact is made and broken mechanically 
through a shaft driven by the engine, conse¬ 
quently a spark may be obtained from a bat¬ 
tery that is too weak to operate a vibrator. The 
mechanism by which the instantaneous primary 
contact is produced is similar to a snap contact 
produced by a small spring-controlled hammer 
pulled out of position by a ratchet on the shaft. 
'The ratchet has as many teeth as there are cyl¬ 
inders, and runs at the camshaft speed. When 
used with a two-cycle engine, it runs at the 
crankshaft speed if there are four cylinders. If 
there are two cylinders, it runs at half the en- 


The Automobile Handbook 


367 


gine speed and the ratchet has four teeth. The 
ordinary commutator is not used in connection 
with it, but a driving connection must be made 
from the crankshaft or camshaft to the vertical 
shaft of the spark generator itself, which is 
mounted on the back of the dashboard. 

The Atwater-Kent system consists of three 
parts: 1, The unisparker, which combines the 
special form of contact-maker, which is the 
basic principle of this system, and a high ten¬ 
sion distributor. 



Atwater Kent Timer Before Moving Lever 

2, The coil, which consists of a simple pri¬ 
mary and secondary winding, with condenser— 
all imbedded in a special insulating compound. 
The coil has no vibrators or other moving parts. 

3, The ignition switch. 

The operation of the unisparker is shown in 
Figs. 164 to 167. This consists of a notched 
shaft, one notch for each cylinder, which ro- 


368 


The Automobile Handbook 


tates at one-half the engine speed, a lifter or 
trigger which is pulled forward by the rotation 
of the shaft and a spring which pulls the lifter 
back to its original position. A hardened steel 
latch and a pair of contact points complete the 
device. 



Fig. 165 

Atwater Kent Timer Before Lever Escapes 


The figures show the operation of the con¬ 
tact-maker very clearly. It will be noted that 
in Fig. 164 the lifter is being pulled forward 
by the notched shaft. When pulled forward as 
far as the shaft will carry it, Fig. 165, the 
lifter is suddenly pulled back by the recoil of 
the lifter spring. In returning it strikes 
against the latch, throwing this against the con¬ 
tact spring and closing the contact for a very 
brief instant—far too quickly for the eye to 
follow the movement, Fig. 166. 







The Automobile Handbook 


369 


Fig. 167 shows the lifter ready to be pulled 
forward by the next notch. 

Note that the circuit is closed only during 
the instant of the spark. No current can flow 
at any other time, even if the switch is left 
“on” when the motor is not running. 

By means of the distributor, which forms the 
upper part of the unisparker, the high-tension 
current from the coil is conveyed by the ro¬ 
tating distributor block, which seats on the end 
of the unisparker, to each of the spark plug 
terminals in the order of firing. 



Fig. 166 

Atwater Kent Timer With Contacts Closed 


Where the lighting and starting battery is 
used for ignition, two wires from the ignition 
system should run directly to the battery ter¬ 
minals. They should not be connected in on any 
other branch circuit. 






370 


The Automobile Handbook 


The automatic type is cylindrical in shape 
and consists of a pressed steel casing with a 
hard rubber cap, the latter forming the base 
of the high-tension distributor. The device is 
mounted on a shaft which is driven at half the 
speed of the crankshaft. Within the casing is 
located the mechanism, consisting of the gov¬ 
ernor which automatically controls the advance, 
the circuit breaker and high-tension distributor. 



Fig. 167 


Atwater Kent Timer With Contacts Re-opened 

At the bottom of the casing is the governor, 
a modification of the centrifugal type which 
consists of two pairs of weights, each pair be¬ 
ing pivoted together at their centers, and two 
double arm brackets. When the shaft starts 
to revolve, the weights extend away from the 
center and the arms change their angular rer 
lation in direct proportion to the- speed of the 
driving shaft. 



The Automobile Handbook 371 

In order that the weights will not move away 
from the center too easily and give too great 
an advance to low speeds, the brackets carry¬ 
ing the springs are so arranged that the weights 
have to act against them when obeying the im¬ 
pulse of centrifugal force, and moving away 
from the axis of rotation. Virtually each 
weight is a bell-crank lever with one point of 
connection pivoted to the arm and the other 
point of connection pivoted to the weight. The 
four weights thus give four bell-crank levers 
working in the same direction at the same time 
against the four respective springs. 

In timing with automatic advance the piston 
in No. 1 cylinder should be raised to high 
dead center, between compression and power 
strokes, then, with the clamp which holds the 
unisparker loose, the unisparker should be 
slowly and carefully turned backwards, or 
counter clockwise (contrary to the direction of 
rotation of the timer-shaft), until a click is 
heard. This click happens at the exact instant 
of the spark. Now clamp the unisparker tight, 
being careful not to change its position. 

Now remove the distributor cap, which fits 
only in one position, and note the position of 
the distributor block on the end of the shaft. 
The terminal to which it points is connected to 
No. 1 cylinder. The other cylinders in their 
proper order of order of firing are connected to 
the other terminals in turn, keeping in mind the 
direction of rotation of the timer shaft. 


372 


The Automobile Handbook 


When timed in this manner the spark oc¬ 
curs exactly on ‘ ‘ center ’ 7 when the engine is 
turned over slowly. At cranking speeds the 
governor automatically retards the spark for 
safe starting, and as the speed increases, the 
spark is automatically advanced, thus requir¬ 
ing no attention on the part of the driver. 

The first operation in timing the hand ad¬ 
vance unisparker is to crank the engine until 
the piston of No. 1 cylinder is on high dead 
center between the compression and power 
strokes. 

The unisparker is then placed on the shaft, 
the advance rod from the steering post being 
connected to the lug on the side of the uni- 
sparker, which is provided for that purpose. 

The position of the spark advance lever on 
the steering wheel sector should be within 
inch of full retard, and the connecting levers 
should be such as to give the unisparker a 
movement of at least 45 degrees to 60 degrees 
for the full range of spark advance. 

After the spark lever is connected up and the 
unisparker is in position it should be left loose 
at the driving gear, and, with the motor on 
dead center as above directed, the shaft of the 
unisparker should then be turned forward or 
in the same direction as that in which the timer 
shaft normally rotates, until a click is heard, 
at which point it should be set by tightening 
the driving connection. 

The contact points are the only adjustable 


373 


The Automobile Handbook 

feature of the unisparker. These points should 
never touch when engine is at rest and the 
space between them should vary from 1/100 
to 1/64 of an inch, depending upon the strength 
of the batteries, spark, heat recpiired, etc The 
spark can be made hotter by decreasing the dis¬ 
tance, and current can be economized by in¬ 
creasing it. Once or twice a season these con¬ 
tacts should be examined and should be kept 
flat and bright by means of a small file or 
emery cloth on a stick. The proper adjustment 
when starting with new batteries is about 1/32 
of an inch, if dry cells are used. If storage 
battery is used, it may be necessary to reduce 
this a little. At intervals of six or eight hun¬ 
dred miles of service as the batteries decrease 
in strength, these contacts should be closed from 
a quarter to a half turn, or until regular fir¬ 
ing is obtained. Do not attempt under any cir¬ 
cumstances to adjust the tension of the springs. 

Frequently when high-tension wires are run 
from the distributor to the spark plugs through 
metal or fibre tubing, trouble is experienced 
with missing and back-firing, which is due to 
induction between the various wires in the tube. 
This trouble is especially likely to happen if 
the main secondary wire from the coil to the 
center of the distributor runs through this tube 
with the spark-plug wires. 

Wherever possible, the distributor wires 
should be separated by at least 1/2 i nc h space 
and should be supported by brackets or insu- 



374 


The Automobile Handbook 

lators rather than run through a tube. In no 
case should the main distributor wire be run 
through a conduit with the other wires 

If irregular sparking is noted at all plugs, 
examine first the battery and connection there¬ 
from. If the trouble commences suddenly, it 
is probably due to a loose connection in the 
viiing.. If gradually, the batteries may be» 
weakening or the contact points may require 
attention. See that the contacts are clean and 
bright, and also, that the moving parts are not 
gummed with oil or rusted. 

Atwater Kent Closed Circuit System. The 
construction of an Atwater Kent breaker which 

operates on the closed circuit principle is shown 
in Figure 168. 

The contact carrying arm is short and light 
and is acted upon at its free end by the cairn 
rather than at the center as is the more usual 
practice The condenser has been mounted on 
e breaker base in place of in the coil as with 
some former installations, thus eliminating some 
of the outside wiring. 

The distributor does not differ in principle of 
operation from former types. The distributor 
rotor just clears the points with which the spark 

plug wires connect and the high tension current 
jumps this minute gap. 

The coil used with this system consists of the 
usual core with primary and secondary windings 
which are sealed into an insulating'tube. On 
top of the coil is located a small length of iron 


The Automobile Handbook 


375 


wire, called the resistance unit, which is in series 
with the primary ignition circuit. With exces¬ 
sive flow of current because of the switch being 
left closed while the engine is idle or for any 
other reason, this wire heats and increases its 
resistance sufficiently to prevent a damaging heat 
at the breaker contacts or in the coil windings. 

The gap between the contact points of the 



% 

breaker may be adjusted by sliding the bar 
which carries one of the contact points. This 
bar is held by a screw and with this screw 
loosened the necessary change may be made. 
The normal gap between the points with the 
end of the contact arm on the high point of a 
cam lobe should not be greater than six thou* 
sandths of an inch. 















376 The Automobile Handbook 

Ignition, Connecticut. The Connecticut au¬ 
tomatic igniter system, Fig. 168, produces a 
single spark upon a break occurring in the pri¬ 
mary circuit which, though being' closed, has 
energized a coil. This break is effected in the 
igniter by means of a cam revolving against a 
breaker arm. The high tension spark is dis¬ 
tributed in the same instrument. The igniter 
is mounted on a vertical shaft running at half 
engine speed irrespective of the number of 



Connecticut Breaker Mechanism 

cylindeis. The breaker arm is insulated from 
the base. This provides a metallic circuit; or 
in other words, no engine ground need be uti¬ 
lized in the primary or battery circuit, as the 
primary winding is insulated from the seeond- 
aij ground in the coil. In this case there is 
no possibility of the ignition being affected 
through grounding or shorts in any other cir- 














The Automobile Handbook 


377 


cuit of the car, such as disarrangement in light¬ 
ing or starting systems. 

The igniter may be taken apart and reas¬ 
sembled without the aid of any tools. The dis¬ 
tributor case can be removed by unsnapping the 
two spring clips on the side, thus exposing the 
distributor arm carrying the carbon brush, 
Fig. 169, which can be slipped off the shaft 



Fig. 170 

Connecticut Distributor Rotor 


Then remove cotter pin passing through shaft 
and the dust proof cover carrying the upper 
bearing can be taken off and the breaker box 
complete,- Fig. 170, can be lifted from the shaft. 
As the shaft is not disturbed the timing is in 
no way affected when the igniter is reassembled 

on the shaft. 


































f 

378 The Automobile Handbook 

The system is not recommended for use on 
ry cells except as an emergency, but is de- 

signed to operate from a storage battery 
charged by a dynamo. 

The automatic switch of the Connecticut 
automatic igniter system is a feature that is 
individual to this system and unique in igni¬ 
tion apparatus. Its function is to kick off the 
switch should the primary circuit be closed an 
unwarranted length of time, as in the case of a 
ar being left with the switch on the engine 

batteries ^ prevent the draining of 

Another purpose is to protect the ignition 
wiring should a disarrangement occur in the 

and d7t ° r t . Starting circuit “d an excessive 

into tT Z" a “° U “ t ° f ° Urrent be “Educed 
into the ignition circuit. 

+ J be , CireuH is cl osed in the automatic switch 
through contacts of the plunger type These 

C°‘,Z "i “ “ »»*»• by , 

tip . This plate is released by the “off” 
button on the switch; or in cases of prolonged 
or excessive flow of current, by a vibiS 

magnetic release thermostatically effected ThI 

* — th„ no wl 

ing S,” " " ““ " “ r *»« >b« 

thermostatically is “2" 

«w?.h“ P ' Wd &r ”“ r in «,p‘ho.“ 


1 


The Automobile Handbook 379 

To time the igniter, tunr the engine over, 
with petcocks open, until/the piston of the first 
cylinder has reached the top of the compres¬ 
sion stroke. Now advance the spark lever on 
the steering wheel about three-quarters of the 
way. Remove distributor cap, then set the 
igniter on driving shaft with set screws loose, 
connect advance lever, turn huh of igniter on 
shaft in direction of rotation until contact points 
are just open, which is the point at which the 
spark takes place, then tighten the hub set 
screws. Replace the distributor cap, carefully 
noticing which segment of the distributor the 
brush is opposite, for this is the connection to 
the spark plug of No. 1 cylinder. Connect 
up the balance of the spark plugs in their fir¬ 
ing order. After connecting all wires you are 
then ready to try out the ignition. Before 
cranking, fully retard your spark lever. To 
suit individual requirements, it may be neces¬ 
sary to slightly advance the igniter hub if 
greater speed is required, or slightly retard it 
for very slow speed. 

This igniter is completely housed and pro¬ 
tected. Little care is required to keep it in 
working condition. About every four or five 
thousand miles the distributor cap should be 
removed and wiped out. On the ball-bearing 
igniter, the distributor arm should be with¬ 
drawn • and one or two drops and no more of 
good oil injected into the hole in the end of 
the shaft which carries the distributor arm. 


380 The Automobile Handbook 

This will lubricate the lower ball-bearing. No 
other parts need oiling. Care should be taken 
to see that oil does not reach the contact points. 
On the plain bearings or self-lubricating type, 
the bearings require no attention whatever. 

The contact points will probably require no 
attention until run at least ten thousand miles 
and in some cases they may operate for over 
thirty thousand miles without attention. 

The points do not require refiling or clean¬ 
ing even though they may be very rough and 
irregular, but when they become so badly 
burned as to cause missing they should then be 
renewed, in which case proceed as follows: 

Remove the distributor cap and arm, discon¬ 
nect advance lever and wires, remove cotter pin 
in igniter shaft, then spring washer and fibre 
washer, and lift the housing from its shaft. 

The contact adjustment screw will be noticed 
under the dust ring, it being locked from turn¬ 
ing by a hexagon nut on the screw inside near 
the end. Care should be taken to see that this 
nut is tightened up snugly after making a re¬ 
placement or adjustment. When it is necessary 
to adjust these points they should be set so 
that when the roller rests on the point of the 
cam, they open about the same as a magneto 
interrupter. It is not necessary, however, to 
make this adjustment as accurately as on a 
magneto. The adjustable contact screw can 
be removed by taking off the lock-nut and then 
screwing it back out of the housing. 


The Automobile Handbook 


381 


The contact on the breaker arm is riveted 
into it and a complete new arm is necessary in 
making a replacement. 

This arm can be readily removed by taking 
out the small cotter pin in the end of the stud 
on which it moves, remove small fibre washers 
and the arm can then be lifted out. 

When replacing the arm on the stud before 
putting the cotter pin in place, be sure and re¬ 
place the little fibre washers which rest on the 
top of the arm just under the little cotter pin 
and the fibre washer on the stud in the bottom 
of the cup. 

Ignition, Delco. The Delco system of bat¬ 
tery ignition makes use of a combined breaker 
and distributor usually mounted on, and driven 
from, the lighting dynamo or motor-dynamo. 
In some installations the ignition unit is placed 
by itself, but the construction and operation is 

the same in either case. 

The distributor and timer are driven through 
a set of spiral gears attached to the armature 
shaft or its extension. The distributor con¬ 
sists of a cap or head of insulating material,, 
carrying one high-tension contact in the center, 
with similar contacts spaced equi-distant about 
the center, and a rotor which maintains con¬ 
stant communication with the central contact- 
The rotor carries a contact button which 
sends the secondary circuit to the spark plug 
in the proper cylinder. 




382 


The Automobile Handbook 


Beneath the distributor head and rotor is the 
timer, Fig. 171, which is provided with a screw 
in the center of the shaft, the loosening of which 



Fig. 171 

Head Breaker. A, Cam Holding 
Battery Current Contacts. C, 
D, Resistance Wire Spool. E f 
Lam Contact Levers. M, Dynamo Current Con¬ 
tacts. 


Delco Ignition 
Screw. B, 
Breaker Cam. 


allows the cam to be turned in either direction 
to secure the proper timing, turning in a clock¬ 
wise direction to advance and counter-clock¬ 
wise to retard. 



























The Automobile Handbook 


383 


The spark occurs at the instant the timer 
•contacts are opened. 

The adjustment screw must always be set 
down tight after the cam is adjusted. 

The same weight which operates the arm on 
the regulating resistance also operates the auto¬ 
matic spark control. In addition to the auto¬ 
matic spark control, a manual spark control 
is provided, which is operated by the lever on 
the steering column, and is connected to the 
lever at the bottom of the motor generator. 
The manual spark control is for the purpose of 
securing the proper ignition control for vari¬ 
able conditions, such as starting, differences in 
gasoline and weather conditions. The auto¬ 
matic control is for the purpose of securing the 
proper ignition control necessary for the varia¬ 
tions due to speed alone. 

The resistance unit is a coil of resistance wire 
wound on a porcelain spool. Under ordinary 
conditions it remains cool and offers little re¬ 
sistance to the passage of current. If for any 
reason the ignition circuit remains closed for any 
considerable length of time, the current passing 
through the coil heats the resistance wire, in¬ 
creasing its resistance to a point where very lit¬ 
tle current passes, and insuring against a waste 
of current from battery and damage to the igni¬ 
tion coil and timer contacts. When the arm 
that cuts the regulating resistance into the 
shunt field circuit is at the top position (that 
is, at high speeds), the resistance unit is cut 




384 


The Automobile Handbook 


out of the ignition circuit. This increases the 
intensity of the spark at high speeds. 

To time ignition: Fully retard the spark 
lever. Turn the engine so that upper dead 
center on flywheel is about one inch past dead 
center with No. 1 cylinder on the firing stroke. 
Loosen screw in center of timing mechanism 
and locate the proper lobe of the cam by turn- 
ing until the button on the rotor comes under 
the high tension terminal for No. 1 cylinder. 
Set this lobe of the cam so that when the back 
lash in the distributor gears is rocked forward 
the timing contacts will be open, and when the 
back lash is rocked backward the contacts 
will just close. Tighten screw and replace rotor 
and distributor head. 

If the motor fires properly on the “M” but¬ 
ton, but not on the “B” button, the trouble 
must be in the wiring between the dry cells or 
the wires leading from the dry cells to the com¬ 
bination switch, or depleted dry cells. 

If the ignition works on the “B” button and 
not on the M button, the trouble must be 
in the leads running from the storage battery 
to the motor-generator, or the lead running 
from the rear terminal on the generator to the 
combination switch, or in- the storage battery 
itself, or its connection to the frame of the car. 

If both systems of ignition fail and the sup¬ 
ply of current from both the storage battery 
and dry cells is ample, the trouble must be in 
the coil, resistance unit, timer contacts or con- 


The Automobile Handbook 


385 


denser. This is apparent from the fact that 
these work in the same capacity for each sys¬ 
tem of ignition. 

The following directions for upkeep apply in 
a general way to the “M” or “Mag” igni¬ 
tion on all of the Delco systems, but do not 
apply to the dry battery ignition. 

The contact points are of tungsten metal, 
which is very hard and requires a very high tem¬ 
perature to melt. These should be kept clean and 
smooth on the faces. This can be done by hold¬ 
ing in a vice and using fine emery cloth held 
underneath a flat file. They should be so ad¬ 
justed that when they are open they are apart 
ten-thousands of an inch and the contact arm 
should move about fifteen-thousands of an 
inch after the contacts close. 

The most common causes of contact trouble 
are due to the following: (1) Resistance 
unit shorted out, resulting in excessive current 
through the contacts, especially at low speeds. 
(2) Abnormally high voltages due to run¬ 
ning without the battery or with a loose con¬ 
nection in the battery circuit. (3) A broken 
down condenser. 

The distributor head should be properly lo¬ 
cated, that is with the locating tongue of the 
hold-down clip in the notch on the distributor 
head. The head should be kept wiped clean 
from dust and dirt and in some cases it is 
advisable to lubricate this head with a small 
amount of vaseline. 




386 


The Automobile Handbook 


The rotor should be kept free from dust and 
dirt and the rotor button polished bright. The 
rotor button should be fully depressed before 
putting on the distributor head to make sure 
the spring will allow the button to go down to 
the proper level and not subject it to undue 
pressure on the distributor head. 



Fig. 172 


Delco Closed Circuit System. The closed 
circuit type of breaker used in recently manu¬ 
factured equipment is shown in Figure 172. 
The device consists of a straight arm fitted with 
a small bumper against which the lobes of the 
cam strike when the contacts are to be sepa¬ 
rated. The contacts are normally held closed 
by a long flat spring attached to the pivoted 
end of the arm. 











The Automobile Handbook 387 

The position of the cam may be altered for 
timing purposes by loosening the screw in its 
center which allows the cam itself to be turned 
about its shaft. One of the contacts is adjust¬ 
able to secure the proper opening by turning 
the screw on which it is mounted. The adjust¬ 
ment is maintained by tightening a lock nut. 
The proper break of these contacts when held 
apart by the lobe of the cam is eighteen thou¬ 
sandths of an inch. During the first few hun¬ 
dred miles driving the wear of the fibre block 
on the breaker arm is much greater than after 
this block has worn to a seat. The contacts- 
should be adjusted once or twice during the first 
season’s operation of the car, after which but 
little attention will be required. 

In setting the breaker cam for timing, the 
proper lobe of the cam should be located by 
turning, with the center screw loosened, until 
the distributor rotor comes under the position 
which number one high tension terminal on the 
distributor cover occupies when the cover is 
properly located. With number one piston at 
ignition top center this lobe of the cam should 
be set so that when the play of the driving gears 
is rocked forward the contacts will be open, and 
when rocked backward the contacts will just 

close. 


388 


The Automobile Handbook 


Ignition, Remy Battery. This make of igni¬ 
tion equipment is furnished in two principal 
types, one of which might be called “magneto 

type” and the other one a “vertical ignition 
head.” 

The magneto type of battery equipment bears 
a very close resemblance to the breaker and dis¬ 
tributor end of a separate unit magneto, being 
composed of a distributor having terminals for 
the spark plug leads and below the distributor 
a breaker exactly similar in construction to that 
with magnetos. In connection with this unit 
a two-way switch is used, giving either dry bat- 
terj 01 generator as a source of ignition current. 
To transform the current to one of high-ten¬ 
sion a separate coil is used. 

This coil differs from ordinary coil construc¬ 
tion inasmuch as both ends of the primary wind¬ 
ing are insulated, so that, in the event of a 
ground occurring in the lighting or starting cir¬ 
cuits, the ignition will be unaffected. The coil 
is provided with a safety gap as a further 
means of protection. 

The coil is wound for six volts and is to be 
used in connection with a storage battery or 
with five dry cells. The coil is to be mounted 
on the crankcase within 6 or 8 inches of the 
breaker points as the condenser is incorporated 
in the coil and not on the generator. A special 

top. plate is provided to securely hold coil in 
position. 

The circuit breaker platinum points may be 


\ • 


The Automobile Handbook 


389 


inspected by removing the Bakelite housing 
cover. The points should have a smooth, clean, 
flat surface at all times. The break, or gap, of 
these points should be from 15 to 20 thou¬ 
sandths of an inch. The circuit breaker may, 
if desired, be removed without the aid of tools. 

The high-tension current is distributed to the 
spark plug cables by means of a hard carbon 
brush making contact with distributor segments. 
Neither distributor nor brush will require any 
attention whatsoever. 



Fig. 173 

Remy Vertical Ignition Timer 


An oiler is provided for the distributor shaft,. 
—only a few drops of light oil every one thou¬ 
sand miles will suffice. 

The use of spark plugs which permit of the 
points, being adjusted to a definite gap is recom¬ 
mended. The gap between the points should be- 
from 20 to 25 thousandths of an inch. 









390 The Automobile Handbook 

If the motor misses when running idle or 
pulling light, the plug gaps should be wider. 
If motor misses at high speed or when pulling 
heavy at low speed, the plug gaps should be 
made closer. 

The vertical ignition head consists of a com¬ 
bined breaker and distributor mounted in one 
case, Fig. 173, and adapted to be driven from a 
vertical shaft usually on or near the lighting 
dynamo. 

Some of these distributors have a manual ad¬ 
vance for the spark, while some are built with 
a mechanism which automatically advances the 
spark to meet the requirements of the engine 
upon which it is installed.. 

The high-tension current is distributed to the 
spark plug leads by a segment which revolves 
<dose to, but does not touch, the pins in the dis¬ 
tributor head. 

Either iridium-platinum, tungsten or silver is 
used in the contact points, the choice depending 
upon which is best suited to the installation. 

The coil furnished with this system has a spe¬ 
cial ventilating base which may be bolted se¬ 
curely to the engine frame. Its current con¬ 
sumption is limited by a resistance located on 
fop of the coil and which is in series with the 
primary winding. 

The metal base of the coil makes an electrical 
connection with the engine or car frame for one 
side of the secondary winding. Therefore, it* is 
very important before mounting the coil to see 


The Automobile Handbook 


391 


that all foreign matter, such as dirt, grease, 
paint, etc., is removed from the place where the 
coil is to be mounted. It is also very important 
that the base of the coil be fastened down se¬ 
curely at all times. 

The switches furnished with this equipment 
are arranged to reverse the direction of current 
flow through the circuit breaker each time the 
ignition is used. 

It is absolutely necessary that the ignition 
switch be placed in the “off” position when the 
engine is not running. If it is left in the “on” 
position, current from the storage battery will 
be dissipated in the ignition coil which, if con¬ 
tinued, will exhaust the battery. 

By an insulated system is meant one in which 
the circuit breaker is not grounded. By glanc¬ 
ing at the wiring diagram it will be seen that 
the circuit from the switch around through the 
breaker box and back to the switch again is not 
grounded, and that the switch reverses the di¬ 
rection of the current flow through this circuit 
at each quarter turn. 

If the insulation is worn off any one of the 
wires and the copper touches any of the metal 
parts of the car, a short circuit will result which 
will either render the system inoperative by 
burning out a fuse or will discharge the bat¬ 
tery. A periodical inspection should be made of 
all wiring to see that it is not rubbing or chafing 
on any of the metal parts of the car and that all 
connections are tight and secure; 


392 


The Automobile Handbook 


The contact screw should be adjusted with 
the wrench furnished with the system, so that 
the maximum opening of the points is .020 to 
.025 inch, or the thickness of the piece riveted 
upon the side of the wrench. The rebound 
spring should be at least .020 of an inch from 
the breaker arm when the points are at their 
maximum opening. 

To obtain the best results the spark-plug gaps 
should be adjusted to .025 of an inch. 

Ignition, Westinghouse. Dual ignition is 
obtained in the Westinghouse system; that is, 
the battery is an independent source of supply, 
as well as the generator operating with the bat¬ 
tery, while the interrupter, ignition coil and 
distributer are common to both. 

The interrupter is so constructed that the 
period of contact is practically the same at any 
speed. The spark voltage, therefore, does not 
fall off at high speeds, but is practically the 
same at all speeds. 

Automatic spark advance is a feature of the 
Westinghouse generator. The automatic ad- 
vance works over a range of 45°. Provision is 
made for manual operation also, and it is recom¬ 
mended that this be connected up, but the spark 
lever need not ordinarily be touched after the 
original adjustment, the automatic device taking 
care of all adjustments in running. 

The interrupter is mounted on the generator 
shaft and contacts are operated by a centrifugal 
device that automatically adjusts the spark ad- » 


The Automobile Handbook 


393 


vance to the speed, keeps the period of contact 
nearly constant at all speeds and prevents any 
inequality between the two interruptions that 
occur in succession during each revolution. 



Fig. 174 

Westinghouse Ignition and Lighting Dynamo 

The ignition outfit consists, in addition to the 
lighting system and storage battery, of a dis¬ 
tributer and an interrupter, which are made a 
part of the generator, Fig. 174, and an ignition 
coil and switch. The ignition coil transforms 
the six volts of the battery up to the high ten¬ 
sion required for the spark plugs. The inter¬ 
rupter closes and then opens the ignition cir¬ 
cuit at each half revolution of the generator 
shaft, and the distributer directs the high-ten¬ 
sion current to each of the spark plugs in sue- . 
cession. 






















394 The Automobile Handbook 

The operation of the ignition system, includ¬ 
ing the interrupter and distributer, ignition coil 
and switch, begins with the 11 making” of the 
primary circuit of the coil when the centrifugal 
weights push down the fibre bumper, allowing 
the interrupter contacts to close, Fig. 175. Then 
the weight moves off the fibre bumper, allowing 
the contacts to suddenly separate or open' when 
a high voltage is induced in the secondary of 
the ignition coil and .directed by the distributer 



Westinghouse Ignition Breaker, Low Speed Po¬ 
sition 

to the proper spark plug, causing a spark. As 
the speed of the engine increases, the weights 
are thrown out from the center and automatic¬ 
ally advance the time of closing or opening the 
interrupter contacts, and hence advance the 
spark, Fig. 176. At the same time, due to their 
shape, they keep the contacts closed during a 
greatei part of the revolution when running at 
high speed; this makes the period of contact 


































The Automobile Handbook 


395 


practically the same at all speeds and prevents 
the spark voltage from falling off at high 
speeds. 

To connect the ignition system to the circuit, 
insert the plug into the ignition switch and 
move the switch handle to the “on” position. 



Westinghouse Ignition Breaker, High Speed Po¬ 
sition 

In inserting the ignition plug pay no attention 
to the position of the brass contact pieces on 
the plug. It is desirable that the contacts will 
average up as often in one as in the other of the 
two possible positions, as this reverses the direc¬ 
tion of the current through the interrupter con¬ 
tacts and greatly increases their life. 

The spark plug should be set with slightly less 
than 1/32 inch between tips for best operation. 
Oily or carbonized plugs will often cause miss¬ 
ing, and if dirty, they should be well brushed 
inside and outside with gasoline and wiped per- 




















396 The Automobile Handbook 

feetly dry. A crack in the insulating material 
will, of course, probably lead to failure of spark 
in the cylinder. 

The interrupter stop is adjusted so as to give 
the proper pressure on the bumper. When the 
engine is not running and the weights are in a 
closed position, there should be a space of 3/64 
inch between the bumper lever and the stop. 
After the stop is adjusted, the contact screw 
should be adjusted by means of a wrench, so 
that with the cam lever against the upper stop, 
the contacts are open .005 inch. After setting 
for this separation, tighten the clamping screw 
so that the contact screw is held firmly. Be sure 
that the contacts open up positively and that 
the moving element moves clear up against the 
upper stop when released, with some spring ten¬ 
sion still remaining to hold it in this position. 
See that the contacts are kept free from all oil 
and grit. 

Interrupter weights should turn freely on 
their supporting pins and should also clear the 
centrifugal weight spring support by approxi¬ 
mately .01 inch. They should show no lost mo¬ 
tion between the two interlocking weights. In 
making any readjustments, be careful that when 
the engine is turned over very slowly by hand, 
both weights depress the moving part of the 
interrupter enough to definitely close the con¬ 
tacts, otherwise there will be a tendency to miss 
fire in every second cylinder, especially at low 
speeds and if the contacts are worn more or less. 


1 


The Automobile Handbook 397 

When the weights are in the inner position, 
the springs should just touch the fibre-covered 
pins on the weights without exerting any appre¬ 
ciable pressure over that required to just posi¬ 
tively return the weights to the innermost posi¬ 
tion. If necessary to adjust these springs, al¬ 
ways bend the supporting arms and not the 
springs themselves. 

Distributer brushes should slide freely in 
their holders and the springs should push them 
out so as to extend from the holder about % 
inch when the distributer plate is removed from 
the generator. These brushes should, however, 
be retained firmly by their springs so as to never 
tend to fall completely out of the tubes. Be 
sure that both these brushes are in place in the 
distributer. 

Distributer plate should be kept clean and 
free from carbon dust between brushes and con¬ 
tact surfaces by an occasional wiping. Any 
pitting of the distributer which is in advance 
of the contacts, indicates that the distributer 
gear is set one tooth or so too far back against 
the direction of its rotation. This may cause 
intermittent firing of the cylinders at the higher 
speeds, with consequent loss of power. The 
gear is set correctly at the factory, and if this 
setting is not disturbed the above trouble will 
not be encountered. 

The distributer gear is meshed with the pinion 
on the generator shaft so that the mark at the 
edge of the gear lines up with the tooth of the 


A 




398 ' The Automobile Handbook 

pinion that is slightly beveled. In coupling the 
generator to the engine, place the piston of 
cylinder No. 1 on dead center at the end of the 
compression stroke. Remove the distributer 
plate and turn the generator back so that the 
line of the distributer brushholder block corre¬ 
sponds with the line on the end bracket. Couple 
the engine and generator shafts while in this 
position. 



Westinghouse Vertical Ignition Head 


The Westinghouse vertical ignition unit can 
be used for ignition from storage batteries or 
plain lighting generators, Fig. 177 . This set 






































The Automobile Handbook 


399 


contains interrupter, spark coil and condenser, 
and distributer, all in one unit. One wire from 
the battery or generator to the ignition unit and 
one wire to each spark plug are all that are 
required. 



Westinghouse Vertical Ignition Wiring 

The interrupter, located at the lower end of 
the set, has the same type of circuit-breaker as 
that on the Westinghouse ignition and lighting 

















































































400 


The Automobile Handbook 


generators, but no automatic spark advance fea¬ 
ture. It can be used equally efficiently for either 
direction of rotation without change. The in¬ 
terrupter is enclosed by a spring collar which 
can be readily removed for inspection or adjust¬ 
ment of the contacts. The collar makes a tight 
joint and is clamped by a screw which prevents 
it from slipping. See wiring diagram, Fig. 178. 

The Westinghouse Ford vertical ignition unit 
is made up of four essential parts, namely, the 
interrupter, the condenser, the induction coil, 
and the distributer, all included in one case. 

The operation of the interrupter can be ob¬ 
served by loosening the thumbscrew and sliding 
upward the loose section of the insulation case, 
which forms the interrupter cover. 

With the ignition switch turned to the “on” 
position and the engine turning over, each seg¬ 
ment of the interrupter cam in turn passes on 
and off the fibre bumper. As each cam passes 
off the bumper, the interrupter contacts close, 
closing the circuit from the battery to the pri¬ 
mary winding of the induction coil. Then as 
they pass on the bumper, the contacts are 
opened, suddenly opening the circuit, thus in¬ 
ducing a high voltage in the secondary of the in¬ 
duction coil. Thk voltage is directed by the 
distiibuter on the top of the ignition unit to 
the proper spark plug, causing a spark at the 
spark gap of the plug inside the cylinder, and 
igniting the charge therein. 

The contact screw should be adjusted with a 


The Automobile Handbook 401 

screwdriver so that, with the cam against the 
bumper, the contacts are open .008 inch. 

If the contacts show pitted or irregular sur¬ 
faces they should be smoothed up with a very 
fine file, making certain that the surfaces come to¬ 
gether squarely after adjustment has been made. 



402 The Automobile Handbook 

Ignition, Magneto Type. Magneto ignition 
makes use of a separately mounted machine 
having its own armature and field magnets (per¬ 
manent magnets) and being driven from the 
engine. A magneto always consists of a rotat¬ 
ing member, this being a shuttle wound arma¬ 
ture in most cases, or simply pieces of iron in 
the inductor type. This rotating member, 
through the change in the jpath of the lines of 
force from the magnets, produces a current in 
a coil separate or on the armature in the 
shuttle wound form, or mounted separately in 
the inductor magneto. This current rises from 
zero to its maximum voltage twice for each 
revolution of the magneto shaft, one impulse 
flowing in one direction through the windings 
and the next one (on the other half revolution) 
flowing in the opposite direction. The current 
from a magneto always reverses its direction in 
this way and is, therefore, an alternating cur¬ 
rent. The current from a lighting dynamo does 
not reverse its direction and is a direct current. 
For this reason no magneto can ever be used for 
charging a storage battery, a battery requiring 
current that always flows in one direction 
through the circuit. 

Each of the current waves or alternations in 
the magneto circuit is utilized for the produc¬ 
tion of a spark; the breaker contacts opening at 
or near the time when the voltage and flow of 
current is at its maximum, thus producing a 
high pressure in the secondary circuit. 


403 


The Automobile Handbook 

Combined with the armature and the perma¬ 
nent steel magnets that provide the field for 
the magneto is a breaker mechanism that inter¬ 
rupts the flow of current through the circuit 
whenever a spark is desired, and also a dis¬ 
tributor that carries the contacts for delivering 
the high-tension current through the wires that 
lead to the spark plug in the cylinder that is 
ready to fire. While the details of construction 
of magnetos differ as described in the following 
pages, all types contain the parts described 
above. A shuttle wound armature with a break¬ 
er mounted on its shaft is shown in Fig. 179. 



Shuttle Type Magneto Armature With Breaker 
The breaker may take any one of several 
forms, a commonly used construction being 
shown in Fig. 180. The circuit is completed 
through the contacts A, one of which is solidly 
mounted, and the other one attached to the mov¬ 
able arm B. The arm carries a fibre block that 
strikes a stationary cam when it is revolved on 
the armature shaft, and inasmuch as the arm is 
pivoted, the contacts are separated to interrupt 
the circuit and cause a spark to come from 
the winding of the high tension coil of the sys- 








404 


The Automobile Handbook 


tem. The fine winding that forms the high ten¬ 
sion coil may be wound around outside of the 
armature winding on the shuttle type, or may 
be mounted in a housing separate from the 
magneto. With the high tension coil on the 
armature, the magneto is self-contained and pro¬ 
duces a spark without outside parts, being called 
a true high tension magneto. Those magnetos 
using outside coils generate the current in their 



Pig. 180 

Magneto Breaker 


armature and send it through the heavy wind¬ 
ing of the separate induction coil, or trans¬ 
former coil. This separate coil has also a fine 
wire winding in which the high tension spark 
plug current is induced by the breaking of the 
circuit through the heavy wire when the break¬ 
er on the magneto opens. 

The system known as “single ignition/* when 
using a magneto, comprises a true high tension 
















The Automobile Handbook 


405 


machine from which wires lead to the spark 
plugs. The only other wire required is one to 
the switch that will allow the driver to stop the 
production of sparks by connecting the arma¬ 
ture winding to the frame of the car, or ground¬ 
ing it. No other source of current is provided 
with single ignition. 

“Double ignition” provides a true high-ten¬ 
sion magneto, as described, and in addition, a 
complete, and entirely separate, battery, timer 
and coil system with a separate set^ of spark 
plugs and wiring. 

“Dual ignition” uses a magneto similar to 
the single ignition high-tension type, but pro¬ 
vides an additional breaker and induction coil 
through which current may be led from a set 
of dry cells or a storage battery, thus providing 
a source of current other than that of the 
magneto armature when desired for starting or 
emergency use. 

“Transformer coil ignition” makes use of a 
magneto that produces in its armature, or by 
inductor action, a current of low voltage that 
is led to a separately mounted transformer, or 
induction coil. The coil is connected by wires 

I to the breaker and distributor on the magneto. 
How to Remove and Replace a Magneto. 
When about to replace or remove a magneto it 
is well to see that all separable parts aie prop¬ 
erly marked, and if not, mark them. This may 
be done with a center punch, cold chisel, letters 
or numerals. In Fig. 181 is shown the guide 




406 The Automobile Handbook 

marks generally used in connection with a high- 
tension magneto of a four-cylinder motor. The 
center punch marks C, on the Oldham coupling 
such as is usually employed on the magneto 
shaft between the magneto and its driving gear, 
serve as a guide in replacing the magneto. All 
that is necessary in replacing a high-tension 
magneto so marked on a four-cylinder, four¬ 
cycle motor is to see that the marks are directly 
opposite each other; but in two or six-cylinder 
motors, where the crankshaft and the armature 
of the magneto do not run at the same speed, 
care must be taken either not to move the 
crankshaft while the magneto is off or to check 
up the timing before it is replaced. In the 
same illustration is shown the method of mark¬ 



ing the timing gears. These marks are made 
with a cold chisel and are generally present in 
up-to-date construction. ' / 











The Automobile Handbook 


407 



Fig. 182 
Figs. 182 and 183 


)osch High Tension Magneto, Type DU . l, 
Armature End Plate for Primary Winding Con 
nection. 2, Breaker Fastening Screw. 3, 
Breaker Contact Block. 4, Breaker Disc. , 
Long Platinum Contact Screw. 6, Short Plat 
num Contact Screw. 7, Flat Spring for Breaker 
Lever. 8, Breaker Lever. 9, Condenser. 10, 
Collector Ring for High Tension Current. 11, 
High Tension Carbon Brush. 12 , Carbon Brus 
Holder. 13, Conductor Bar Terminal. 14 Co - 
ductor Bar. 15, Distributor Brush Holder lb. 
Distributor Carbon Brush 17 Distributor Plata 
18, Central Contact on Distributor. 19, Bra 
Segment. 20, Terminal for SparK Plug Wire. 
21 Steel Breaker Cam. 22, Dust Cover. 24, 
Grounding Terminal. 25, Distributor Block 
Holding Spring. 116, Breaker Timing Lever. 
117 Breaker Cover. 118, Conducting Spring for 
Grounding Terminal. 119, Breaker Cover Hold¬ 
ing Spring. 











































































408 


The Automobile Handbook 


Bosch Magnetos. The Bosch high tension 
magneto, Fig. 182, generates its own high-ten¬ 
sion current directly in the armature winding 
and without the use of a separate coil or other 
apparatus. Apart from the cables connecting 
the magneto to the plugs, the Bosch high-ten¬ 
sion magneto requires only one grounding wire. 



Fig. 183 


The armature carries two windings. The pri¬ 
mary consists of a few layers of heavy wire and 
the secondary of a great number of layers of 
fine wire. One end of the primary winding is 
grounded on the armature core, and the live end 
is brought out to a circuit-breaking device. The 
grounded end of the secondary winding is con- 









The Automobile Handbook 409’ 

nectecl to the live end of the primary winding 
so that one is a continuation of the other. 

During certain portions of the rotation of the 
armature the primary circuit is closed, and the 
variations in magnetic flux have their effect in 
inducing an electric current in it. When the 
current reaches a maximum, which will occur 
twice during each rotation of the armature, the 
primary circuit is broken, and the resulting ar¬ 
mature reactions produce a high-tension current 
of extreme intensity in the secondary winding. 
This current is transmitted to a distributer by 
means of which it passes to the spark plug of 
the cylinder that is in the firing position. 

The magneto interrupter, Fig. 183, is fitted 
into the end of the armature shaft which is 
taper-bored and provided with a key-way. The 
interrupter is held in position by a fastening 
screw, and may easily he removed. In replacing 
it, care should be taken that the key fits into 
the key-way and that the fastening screw is 
well tightened. 

Twice during each revolution of the armature 
the primary circuit closes and opens, this being 
effected by the interrupter lever coming in con¬ 
tact with a steel segment, which is supported 
on the interrupter housing. When the magneto 
interrupter lever is not being acted upon by the 
steel segment, the platinum points are in con¬ 
tact, thus closing the primary circuit. Then 
as the armature rotates farther and the inter¬ 
rupter lever again comes in contact with a seg- 





410 The Automobile Handbook 

/ 

ment, the platinum points (interrupter con¬ 
tacts) open and thus interrupt the primary cir¬ 
cuit. At the opening of the contact the ignition 
spark occurs instantaneously. 

The distance between the platinum points 
when the magneto interrupter lever is fully de¬ 
pressed by one of the steel segments must not 
exceed 1/32 inch. This distance may be adjusted 
by means of a long platinum screw, and should 
be in accordance with the steel gauge that is 
pivoted to the adjusting wrench. 



Fig. 184 

High and Low Tension Circuits of Bosch Magneto 


The connections of the magneto, Fig. 184, 
consist of a high-tension cable from the dis¬ 
tributor to each spark plug, and a low-tension 
^able leading to the switch. 

In order to protect the insulation of the arma¬ 
ture and of the current-carrying parts of the 







































The Automobile Handbook 


411 


apparatus against excessive voltage, a safety 
spark gap is arranged on the dust cover. It 
consists of a short pointed brass rod set on the 
dust cover, and a second pointed brass part sup¬ 
ported a short distance from it in the center of 
the steatite cover of the housing. The insulated _ 
point is connected into the secondary circuit, 
and should there be any interference with the 
circuit normally provided through the spark 
plug the safety spark gap provides a point of 

discharge. 

If a spark is observed passing in the safety 
spark gap it is an indication that there is an 
interruption in the regular secondary circuit, 
and the cause should be at once investigated. 

A simple test for the magneto is to disconnect 
the grounding cable from grounding terminal 
and also to disconnect the spark plug cables. 
The motor should then he cranked briskly, and 
the safety spark gap closely observed. If sparks 
are seen at this point, it is an absolute indica¬ 
tion that the magneto is in proper operating 
condition. If no sparks are observed it will be. 
necessary to make sure that the primary cir¬ 
cuit is properly interrupted by the magneto in¬ 
terrupter. Holding spring must be moved side- 
ways, interrupter housing cover taken oft, and 
it must be ascertained whether fastening screw 
is well tightened. After tins it should be ob¬ 
served whether the platinum points are m con¬ 
tact when the steel cams are not acting on the 
magneto interrupter lever, also whether t ey 


412 


The Automobile Handbook 


separate the correct distance, l/25th inch, when 
the interrupter lever is resting on one of the 
steel cams. Otherwise the distance must be 
adjusted by means of the platinum screw. The 
platinum contacts must be examined and any 
oil and dirt removed; in case the contacts are 
uneven (but only then) they must be smoothed 
with a fine flat file. If, after continued use, the 
platinum contacts are completely worn down, 
the two platinum screws must be renewed. 

The Bosch dual magneto is of the standard 
Bosch type, and produces its own sparking cur¬ 
rent, which is timed by the revolving inter¬ 
rupter. The parts of this interrupter are car¬ 
ried on a disk that is attached to the armature 
and revolves with it, the segments that serve 

as cams being supported on the interrupter 
housing. 

In addition, the magneto is provided with a 
steel cam having two projections, which is built 
into the interrupter disk. This cam acts on a 
lever that is supported on the interrupter hous¬ 
ing, the lever being so connected in the battery 
circuit that it serves as a timer to control the 
flow of battery current through the coil. 

It is obvious that the sparking current from 
the battery and from the magneto cannot be led 
to the spark plugs at the same time, and a fur¬ 
ther change from the magneto of the indepen¬ 
dent. form is found in the removal of the con¬ 
ducting bar between the collecting ring and the 
distributer. The collecting ring brush is con- 


The Automobile Handbook 


413 


nected to the switch and a second wire leads 
from the switch to the terminal that is centrally 
located on the distributer. 

When running on the magneto the sparking 
current that is induced thus flows to the dis¬ 
tributer by way of switch contact. When run¬ 
ning on the battery the primary circuit of the 
magneto is grounded, and there is, therefore, 
no production of sparking current by the mag¬ 
neto; it is then the sparking current from the 
coil that flows to the distributer connection. It 
will thus be seen that of the magneto and bat¬ 
tery circuits the only parts used in common are 
the distributer and the spark plugs. 

The end plate of the coil housing carries a 
handle by which the switch may be operated. 
By means of this switch either the magneto or- 
the battery may be employed as the source of 
ignition current, and in its operation the entire 
coil is rotated within the housing. The inner 
side of the stationary switch plate is provided 
with spring contacts that register with contact 
plates attached to the base of the coil. 

For the purpose of starting on the spark, a 
vibrator may be cut into the coil circuit by 
pressing the button that is seen in the center of 
the end plate. Normally, this vibrator is out 
of circuit, but the pressing of the button brings 
together its platinum contacts and a vibrator 
spark of high frequency is produced. It will 
be found that the distributer on the magneto is 
then in such a position that this vibrator spark 




\ 



414 


The Automobile Handbook 


is produced at the spark plug of the cylinder 
that is performing the power stroke; if mixture 
is present in this cylinder ignition will result 
and the engine will start. 



Bosch Dual System Wiring Diagram 


The dual system requires four connections be¬ 
tween the magneto and the switch, Fig. 185; 
two of these are high tension and consist of wire 
No. 3 by which the high-tension current from 
the magneto is led to the switch contact, and 
wire No. 4 by which the high-tension current 
from either magneto or coil goes to the distribu¬ 
tor. Wire No. 1 is low tension, and conducts 
the battery current from the primary winding 
of the coil to the battery interrupter. Low-ten¬ 
sion wire No. 2 is the grounding wire by which 
the primary circuit of the magneto is grounded 

























































The Automobile Handbook 


415 


when the switch is thrown to the “off” or to 
the battery position. Wire No. 5 leads from the 
negative terminal of the battery to the coil, and 
the positive terminal of the battery is grounded 
by wire No. 7; a second ground wire No. 6 is 
connected to the coil terminal. 



Method of Setting Armature of Bosch Magneto 

The timing of the Bosch Dual Magneto is 
identical with the standard type. The dual 
magneto is so arranged that the battery inter¬ 
rupter breaks its circuit approximately 10 de¬ 
grees later than the magneto interrupter; this 
feature gives the full timing range of the mag¬ 
neto. With the timing lever fully retarded and 
the switch on the battery position, the battery 
spark will occur after the piston has passed 
















416 


The Automobile Handbook 


dead center and is moving on the power stroke. 
The possibility of a back -kick is thus eliminated. 

The magneto should be placed in position on 
the bed plate or pad provided for it, the bolts 
or straps being properly secured; the driving 
gear or coupling, however, should be loose on 
the armature shaft. The dust cover, which is 
an aluminum plate located under the arch of 
the magneto, should then be removed, and this 
is accomplished according to the design of the 
various types of magnetos. 

The engine should now be cranked until one 
of the pistons, preferably that of cylinder No. 1, 
is at the top of the compression stroke. With 
the engine in this position, the armature should 
be rotated by hand in the direction in which it 
will be driven until it is approximately in the 
position illustrated in Fig. 186. The setting of 
the armature is determined by the dimension 
marked E, Fig. 186, as follows: 

‘ ‘ DU3’ ’ Model 4.11 to 14 mm. 

“DIM” Model 4.13 to 15 mm. 

‘ ‘ DU6 ’ ’ Model 4.16 to 20 mm. 

“DU3” Model 4. 8 to 11 mm. 

“DU4” Model 4.10 to 13 mm. 

“DU6” Model 4.12 to 16 mm. 

With the armature held in the proper posi¬ 
tion, the gear or coupling should be secured. 
The greatest care should be exercised to prevent 
the slipping of the armature during this opera¬ 
tion. 

In the fully enclosed magneto it is unneees- 








The Automobile Handbook 417 

f. \ 

sary to remove either the interrupter housing 
cover or the distributer plate in order to deter¬ 
mine the setting of the instrument, or to locate 
the distributer terminal with which contact is 
made. 

The magneto having been bolted into posi¬ 
tion, the crankshaft is to he turned to bring 
one of the pistons, preferably that of cylinder 
No. 1, to the firing position for full advance. 

The armature is then rotated until the figure 
“1” can be seen through the window in the 
face of the distributer plate. The cover of the 
oilwell on the distributer end of the magneto 
is then to be raised, and the armature is to be 
turned a few degrees in one direction or the 
other until the red mark on one of the dis¬ 
tributer gear teeth is brought to register with 
the red marks on the side of the window located 

between the two oil ducts. 

The magneto is then in time for the full ad¬ 
vance position, and the gear or coupling is to be 
secured to the armature shaft. Great care 
should be taken not to disturb the position 
either of the crankshaft or the armature shaft 
when fitting the driving member. 

Bosch Enclosed Types. In the “DU” dual 
magneto, the current is led from the collector 
ring connection to the coil and back to the 
distributer terminal that is located in the cen¬ 
ter of the distributer plate. In the enclosed 
dual magneto/ this central terminal is elimi¬ 
nated, and the current is led internally to the 




418 The Automobile Handbook 

distributer from a connection on the shaft end 
of the magneto. To expose this terminal, the 
shaft end bonnet should be removed, which is 
done by withdrawing the two screws in its lower 
flange, and sliding the bonnet backward. The 
terminal will then be seen to be a vulcanite post, 
with a boss that projects through a hole in the 
bonnet. In the top of this post are two vertical 
holes, in the bottom of each of which is a screw. 
These screws are to be withdrawn. The ends 
of the high-tension wires No. 3 and No. 4 lead¬ 
ing to the coil are then to be cut off square, 
and after being led through the hole in the bon¬ 
net, are to be pressed to the bottoms of the 
slanting holes in the boss. The pointed screws 
are then to be replaced in the vertical holes, and 
in being driven home they will pierce the cables 
(and their insulation) and make the required 
connections. It is essential to use a screwdriver 
of the proper size, for a tool with too large a 
blade will inevitably crack the vulcanite. Great 
care must be taken to apply the screwdriver to 
the screws vertically in order to avoid cracking 
the vulcanite by side pressure. When the con¬ 
nections are made the bonnet is to be replaced. 

Bosch Upkeep and Care. It will be noted 
that the press button on the coil is arranged to 
set in either of two positions, which are indi¬ 
cated by an arrow engraved on its surface, or 
projecting from its edge. When this button is 
in such a position that the arrow is pointing on 
the word “run” a single contact spark will be 


The Automobile Handbook 419 

produced when the engine is cranked, or when 
the engine is running with the switch in the 
battery position. Under all ordinary conditions 
the button position should invariably be used. 

When the engine is chilled, however, or under 
poor mixture conditions, starting can frequently 
be facilitated by pressing down the button and 
turning it slightly to the right so that the arrow 
is pointing to the word “ start/’ This will lock 
the vibrator in circuit, and a shower of vibrator 
sparks will be produced in place of the single 
contact spark. 

The platinum points of the magneto inter¬ 
rupter should be kept clean and smooth and so 
adjusted that they are open about 1/64 inch, 
or the thickness of the gauge attached to the ad¬ 
justing wrench, w r hen the magneto interrupter 
lever is wide open on one of the rollers or seg¬ 
ments. It should not be necessary to clean or 
readjust these points oftener than once a season, 
and it is not advisable to readjust them until 
their condition and the missing of the engine 
show it to be absolutely necessary. 

Each coil is stamped with the voltage of the 
battery current for which it is wound, and if 
this voltage is not exceeded the platinum con¬ 
tacts of the battery interrupter will not require 
attention for long periods. When this battery 
interrupter lever is being operated by the roll¬ 
ers or segments, the platinum points should be 
slightly wider open than the contact points of 
the magneto interrupter—the proper distance 
being about 1/50 inch. 








420 The Automobile Handbook 

If the magneto is at fault, all the cables and 
terminals should be examined for improper con¬ 
nections. The coil and battery system may then 
be disconnected by removing the wires from 
terminals Nos. 3 and 4 of the magneto, and with 
a short piece of wire magneto terminal No. 3 
may be connected directly with magneto ter¬ 
minal No. 4. This will conduct the high-tension 
current induced in the magneto direct to the 
distributer. The grounding wire should then 
be disconnected from terminal No. 2 of the 
magneto. With this arrangement it should be 
possible to start the engine on the magneto, and 
it will be necessary to follow this plan should 
any accident happen to the coil. 

To ascertain if the magneto is generating cur¬ 
rent, the grounding wire should be disconnected 
from terminal No. 2 on the magneto, and the 
high-tension wire should be disconnected from 
the collecting ring terminal No. 3. If the engine 
is then cranked briskly a spark should appear 
at the safety spark gap that is located under 
the arch of the magnets on the dust cover, 
provided the magneto is in proper condition. 
The grounding wire should then be reconnected 
to terminal No. 2, and the engine cranked. If 
no spark appears at the safety spark gap, the 
trouble may be determined as a leakage of the 
primary magneto current to ground by chafed 
insulation, incorrect connections, or an injury 
to the switch parts. 

The coil may be tested by disconnecting wire 


The Automobile Handbook 


421 


No. 4 from the magneto and throwing the switch 
to the battery position, operating the press but¬ 
ton w T ith terminal No. 4 3/16 inch from the 
metal of the engine. If the coil is in good con¬ 
dition, a brilliant spark should be observed. If 
the spark does not appear the test should be re¬ 
peated with wire No. 3 disconnected. If the 
fault persists the coil body may be removed 
from the housing by withdrawing the holding 
screw that is located close to the supporting 
flange; the switch should then be unlocked and 
the end plate given a quarter revolution. This 
will release the bayonet lock and the coil body 
may then be withdrawn to permit the inspection 
of the switch contacts both of the coil and of 
the stationary switch plate. It may be that the 
spring contacts are bent or otherwise in bad 
condition. The withdrawing of the coil body 
and its handling should be performed with ex¬ 
treme care. No work should be done on the coil 
in the way of withdrawing screws, etc., and if 
the inspection does not disclose the fault the 
coil should be returned to its housing and the 
whole returned to the makers or to one of their 

branches. 

Bosch “NU” Magneto. Like other Bosch 
high-tension magnetos, the type NU4, Fig. 
187, generates its own high-tension current di¬ 
rectly in the magneto armature (the rotating 
member of the magneto) without the aid of a 
separate step-up coil, and has its timer and 
distributer integral. The distinct gear-driven 


422 


The Automobile Handbook 


distributor common to other types has been 
omitted in the “NU4” magneto, and in its stead 
is a double slipring combining the functions of 
current collector and distributor. 

The armature winding is composed of two 
sections: one, primary, or low tension, consist¬ 
ing of a few layers of comparatively heavy 
wire, and the other, secondary, or high tension, 
consisting of many layers of fine wire. 



Bosch High Tension Magneto, Model “NU” 

The beginning of the primary winding is in 
metallic contact with the armature core, and 
the other, or live, end is connected by means of 
the interrupter fastening screw to the insulated 
contact block supporting the long platinum 
screw on the magneto interrupter. The inter¬ 
rupter lever, carrying a short platinum screw, is 
mounted on the interrupter disc which, in turn, 
is electrically connected to the armature core. 
The primary circuit is completed whenever the 


























































The Automobile Handbook 423 

two platinum interrupter screws are in contact 
and interrupted whenever these screws are sepa¬ 
rated. The separation of the platinum screws is 
controlled by the action of the interrupter lever 
as it bears against the two steel segments se¬ 
cured to the inner surface of the interrupter 
housing. The high-tension current is generated 
in the secondary winding only when there is an 
interruption of the primary circuit, the spark 
being produced at the instant the platinum in¬ 
terrupter screws separate. 

The secondary winding is insulated from the 
primary, and the two ends of the secondary are 
connected to two metal segments in the slipring 
mounted on the armature, just inside the driv¬ 
ing shaft end plate of the magneto. The slip¬ 
ring has two grooves, each containing one of 
the two metal segments. These segments are set 
diametrically opposite on the armature shaft, 
that is, 180 degrees apart, and insulated from 
each other, as well as from the armature core 
and magneto frame. 

The four slipring brushes which are part of 
the secondary circuit are supported by two 
double brush holders, one on each side of the 
driving shaft end plate, each holder carrying 
two brushes so arranged that each brush bears 
against the slipring in a separate groove. Upon 
rotation of the armature, the metal segment in 
one slipring groove makes contact with a brush 
on one side of the magneto at the same instant 
that the metal segment in .the other slipring 





424 The Automobile Handbook 

groove comes into contact with a brush on the 
opposite side of the magneto. The marks 1 and 
2 appearing in white on both brush holders in¬ 
dicate pairs of brushes receiving simultaneous 
contact, those marked 1 constituting one pair, 
and those marked 2 the other. 

A spark is caused at two plugs simultane¬ 
ously. It is important to note that as two of 
the four slipring brushes receive contact simul¬ 
taneously and each is connected by cable to the 
spark plug in one of the cylinders, the secondary 
circuit always includes two plugs, and the spark 
occurs in two cylinders simultaneously. 

After removing one of the brush holders to 
permit observation of the slipring, the armature 
shaft is rotated in the direction in which it is 
to be driven, until the beginning of the metal 
slipring segment is visible in the-slipring groove 
corresponding to Fig. 1 of the brush holder 
which has been removed. With that done, the 
cover of the magneto interrupter housing is to 
be removed to expose the interrupter. The 
armature shaft should then be further rotated 
until the platinum interrupter screws are just 
about to separate, which occurs when the inter¬ 
rupter lever begins to bear against one of the 
steel segments of the interrupter housing. 

The armature should be held in that position 
while the magneto drive is connected to the 
engine, due care being taken that the piston of 
No. 1 cylinder is still exactly on top dead center 
of the compression stroke. 


The Automobile Handbook 


425 


After the brush holder and interrupter hous¬ 
ing cover have been replaced the installation is 
completed by connecting the cable of one of the 
brushes, marked 1, with cylinder No. 1, Fig. 188, 
and the other with cylinder No. 4; the remain¬ 
ing two cables, leading from the brushes, marked 
2, must be connected with cylinders Nos. 2 
and 3. 



Wiring Connections for Bosch Magneto, Model 

“NU” 

Dixie Magneto. The Mason principle on 
which the Dixie magneto operates is shown in 
Fig. 189. The magnet has two rotating polar 
extremities, N S, which are always of the same 
polarity, never reversing. These poles are in 
practical contact with the inner cheeks of the 
permanent magnet M, all air gaps being elimi¬ 
nated. • Together with the U-shaped magnet, 
they form a magne’t with rotating ends. 















































426 


The Automobile Handbook 


At right angles to the rotating poles is a field 
consisting of pole pieces F and G, Fig. 190, 
carrying across their top the core C and the 
windings W. When N is opposite G, the mag¬ 
netism flows from pole N on the magnet to G 
and through the core C to F. 



Fig. 189 

Dixie Magneto Principle 
In Fig. 191 the pole N has moved over to F 
and the direction of the flow of magnetism is 
reversed; it now flowing from F through C to 
G. The rotating poles do not reverse their 
polarity at any time, consequently the lag due 
to the magnetic reluctance in this part is elimi¬ 
nated. 

The magneto has a rotating element consist¬ 
ing of two pieces of cast iron with a piece of 
brass between them, but no armature of the 
usual form, the revolving generating element 
being shown in Fig. 192. The pieces N S are 
separated by the brass block B and correspond 
to the pieces N S in Figs. 189, 190 and 191. The 
generating windings are carried on a small coil 
placed across the upwardly projecting ends of 
two pole pieces. 















The Automobile Handbook 


427 


The core of the coil A, Fig. 193, is stationary, 
and the inner end G of the primary winding 
P is grounded on the core. Q indicates the 
metal frame of the machine, which is put to- 




Pig. 190 

Dixie Magneto Action 


Fig. 191 

Reversal of Magnetism 
Through Dixie Magneto 


gether with screws. The condenser R is located 
immediately above the coil and is readily re- 



Rotating Element in Dixie Magneto 


movable. The terminal D is a screw on the 
head of the coil and the wire Z connects di¬ 
rectly to the contact Y of the breaker. The 
breaker contacts are stationary and do not re¬ 
volve as in the armature type. 



































428 


The Automobile Handbook 




Fig. 194 shows the high tension circuit. Here 
the end C of the high tension winding goes to 
a metal plate D carried on the upper side A of 
the coil. Against D bears a connection F, which 
is practically one piece with the traveling con¬ 
tact J, which connects to the spark plug seg¬ 
ment L, the circuit being completed through the 
spark plug, engine frame and frame of magneto 
in the usual manner without brush G. 



Fig. 193 

Low Tension Primary Circuit of Dixie Magneto 


The proper distance between the platinum 
points when separated should not exceed 1/50 of 
an inch, and a gauge of the proper size is at¬ 
tached to the screwdriver furnished with the 
Dixie. 

The platinum contacts should be kept clean 
and properly adjusted. Should the contacts be¬ 
come pitted, a fine file should be used to smooth 
them in order to permit them to come into per- 
feet contact. The distributor block should be 





























The Automobile Handbook 


429 


removed occasionally and inspected for an ac¬ 
cumulation of carbon dust. The inside of the 
distributor should then be wiped dry with a 
clean cloth. When replacing the block, care 
must be taken in pushing the carbon brush into 
the socket. The magneto should not be tested 
unless it is completely assembled, that is, with 
the breaker box, distributor cover and wires in 
position. 



High Tension Circuit of Dixie Magneto 

In order to obtain the most efficient results 
with the Dixie magneto the normal setting of 
the spark plug points should not exceed .025 of 
an inch and it is advisable to have the gap just 
right before a spark plug is inserted into the 
cylinder. The spark plug electrodes may be 
easily set by means of the gauge attached to the 
screwdriver furnished with the magneto. 
























430 


The Automobile Handbook 


Eisemann Magnetos. Recent models of Eise- 
mann magnetos have been designated as the G4 
type. The breaker of the first G4 instruments 
is shown in Figure 195. Its cam is stationary 
except for the movement in advance and retard, 
while the breaker arm and contact carrying parts 
are carried by the armature shaft and revolve 
around the cam. The moving contact point is 



/ 


carried at the end of a flat contact spring. Back 
of the contact spring is a pressure spring which 
serves to hold the contacts closed when not being 
acted upon by the cam. 

A later breaker mechanism is shown in Figure 
196. This breaker is similar to the design used 











































The Automobile Handbook 


431 


on some of the older models and might be taken 
as typical of many true high tension magnetos. 
The cams are stationary in the circumference of 
the housing, while the contact arm and fixed con¬ 
tact carrying parts are attached to the end of 



Fig. 196 


the armature shaft and revolve with it. The 
breaker housing and cam are rotated to secure 
advance and retard. 

The armatures of these magnetos are of the 
conventional shuttle type. The distributors are 
of the wipe contact type having a metal seg¬ 
ment set into the rotor, this segment revolving: 



















432 The Automobile Handbook 

past a series of carbon brushes set into the cover. 
A safety spark gap is provided by means of one 
or two small brass screws which pass through 
the armature housing and have their inner ends 
extending to within about % of an inch of the 
collector ring on the armature shaft. 



Fig. 197 


VI * 

Some of the coil units include a device, shown 
in Figure 197, for starting on the spark. The 
mechanism consists of a three tooth ratchet en- 



















































The Automobile Handbook 


433 


gaging a roller A on a lever B. This lever car¬ 
ries a double face contact. This contact makes 
and breaks the primary circuit by making con¬ 
tact alternately with the fixed points C and D. 
This action results in a stream of sparks at the 
spark plug in the cylinder then ready to fire and 
if there is a combustible mixture in the cylinder 
the engine will start. 



The Eisemann dual system consists of a direct 
high-tension magneto and a combined trans¬ 
former coil and switch. The transformer proper 
is used only in connection with the battery; 
the switch is used in common by both battery 
and magneto systems. The magneto is prac¬ 
tically the same as the single ignition instru¬ 
ment. Separate windings and contact breakers 
are used for battery or magneto current. On 
the other hand, parts that are not subject to 
accident, or rapid wear, are used in common. 




















































434 


The Automobile Handbook 


A distinctive feature is that the pole pieces 
are of a certain shape, Fig. 198, whereby the 
most extended portion thereof is approximately 
opposite the theoretical axis of the winding 
upon armature core. This construction results 
in the flow of the magnetic lines of force being 
drawn from the extremities of the pole pieces 
towards the center of the core; a large volume 
of the magnetic line of force is thus forced 
through the winding. 



GROUND CARBON 

Pig. 199 

Breaker of Eisemann Magneto 

The make-and-break mechanism, Fig. 199, 
consists of a bronze jflate on the back of which, 
and cast in one piece with it, is a cone, fitting 
into the armature shaft, which is bored out 
and provided with a key-way. It moves inside 
of the timing lever and is fastened to the arma- 























The Automobile Handbook 


435 


ture by means of the screw. If this screw is 
extracted the whole mechanism can he removed. 

The primary current is led from the winding 
through the armature shaft to the contact screw 
by the insulated screw, which also serves to hold 
the mechanism to the armature shaft as already 
described. When the armature reaches the cor¬ 
rect position, a lever is lifted by two steel cams 
fastened to the magneto body; the primary cir¬ 
cuit is broken and the current is induced m the 
secondary winding. The beginning of the sec¬ 
ondary winding is connected with the end of the 
primary, winding, and the other end, through 
several mediums, finally delivers the spark in 

the cylinder. . 

In addition to this the magneto is also fitted 

with the battery circuit breaker, which is mount¬ 
ed at the back of the magneto breaker. It con¬ 
sists of a steel cam, having two projections 
which actuate a steel lever mounted into the 

breaker housing. 

A condenser is built in between the T-shaped 
end of the armature and the bearing. . This pre¬ 
vents a spark occurring at the platinum con¬ 
tacts with the consequent pitting and burning, 
when the contact breaker opens, and it also m- 
creases the intensity of the spark at the plugs. 

The coil consists of a non-vibrating transform- 
er and a switch, which is used in common to 
put either the battery or magneto ignition into 
operation. It is cylindrical in shape, compact, 


436 


The Automobile Handbook 


and is placed through, the dashboard. The end 
which projects through on the same side as the 
motor has terminal connections for the cables. 
The other end, facing the operator, contains the 
switch and the starting mechanism. The trans¬ 
former proper is used only in conjunction with 
the battery. 

As the spark occurs when the primary circuit 
is broken by the opening of the platinum con¬ 
tacts, it is necessary that the magneto will be so 
timed that at full retard the platinum contacts 
will open when the piston has reached its highest 
point on the firing stroke. To arrive at this, turn 
motor by hand until piston of No. 1 cylinder 
is on the dead center (firing point). Place the 
timing lever of the magneto in fully retarded 
position, then turn armature of magneto until 
No. 1 appears at the glass dial of the distributer 
plate, and make sure that the platinum contacts 
of the magneto are just opening. Fix the driv¬ 
ing medium in this position. 

If no window is seen, turn motor by hand 
until piston of No. 1 cylinder is on dead center 
(firing point), remove the distributer plate from 
the magneto and turn the drive shaft of the 
armature until the setting mark on the distribu¬ 
ter disc is in line with the setting screw above 
the distributer. (For magneto rotating clock¬ 
wise use setting mark R, and for counter clock¬ 
wise use mark L.) With the armature in this 
position the platinum contacts are just opening 
and the metal segment of the distributer disc 


437 


The Automobile Handbook 


is in connection with carbon brush for No. 1 
cylinder. The driving medium must now be 
fixed to the armature axle without disturbing 
the position of the latter, and the cables con¬ 
nected to the spark plugs. 

If a spark plug cable becomes disconnected or 

broken, or should the gap in the spark plug be 
too great, then the secondary current has no 
path open to it, and endeavoring to find a 
ground will sometimes puncture the insulation 
of the armature of the coil. To obviate this, a 
so-called safety spark gap is placed on the top 
of the armature dust cover. It consists of pro¬ 
motions of brass with a gap between them. One 
of these is an integral part of the dust cover, 
and therefore forms a ground. The other brass 
part is connected with the terminal H M an 
the secondary current will jump across the in¬ 
tervening gap above mentioned, thus protecting 
the armature secondary winding and the higl 


tension insulations. . 

In the coil, this safety gap is placed at one 
end of the core, and hence is not visible It 
consists of a pointed brass finger, attached to 
one end of the secondary, and pointing towards 

the iron core of tlie coil. 

The contact points may be cleaned with gaso¬ 
line until the contact surface appears quite 
white, or use a fine file, but very carefully so 
that the surfaces remain square to each otl . 
The gap at the contact points should not amoun 
to more than 1/64 inch and, as the contacts 


438 The Automobile Handbook 

wear away in time, they must be regulated now 
and then by giving the screw a forward turn, 
or eventually by renewing. When this platinum 
tipped screw is adjusted, care must be taken 
that the lock-nut is securely tightened in place. 
By loosening the center screw, the whole inter¬ 
rupting mechanism may be taken out, so that 
the replacement of the platinum contacts with¬ 
out removing the apparatus can be easily done 
at any time. The fixing screw of the make-and- 
break is held fast by a lock spring, so that it 
is impossible for this screw to loosen. When it 
is desired to remove this screw, the lock spring 
must first be removed by turning it over the 
head of the screw. Do not forget to put the 
spring in the original position after having fixed 
the make-and-break to the armature. 



Automatic Advance Mechanism of Eisemann 

Magneto 

The Eisemann automatic advance, Fig. 200, is 
accomplished by the action of centrifugal force 
on a pair of weights A attached at one end to a 
sleeve B, through which runs the shaft C of the 
magneto, and hinged at the other end to the 
armature. 






























The Automobile Handbook 


■ 439 1 


Along the armature shaft arm run two spiral 
ridges which engage with similarly shaped 
splines in the sleeve. When the armature is 
rotated the weights begin to spread and exert a 
longitudinal pull on the sleeve which in turning 
changes the position of the armature with refer¬ 
ence to the pole pieces. In this way the moment 
of greatest current is advanced or retarded, and 
with it the break in the primary circuit, for the 
segments which lift the circuit breaker and 
cause the break in the primary circuit are fixed 
in the correct position and thus the break can 
only occur at the moment when the current m 
the winding is strongest. On magnetos without 
this advance it is the segments which are moved 
forward or back, as the case may be. As there 
is only one actually correct position for the seg¬ 
ments, every degree away from this weakens 

the spark. 

The spreading of the weights rotates the arma¬ 
ture forward, and advances the spark and the 
resumption, either total or in part, of their 
original position close to the shaft, retards it by 
rotating the armature backward. 

As the timing is accomplished by changing 
the relative positions of armature and motor 
and not those of the segments in the timing level 
which cause the breaking of the circuit, t e 
spark is always bound to occur at the moment 
of greatest current and the apparatus t us 
given as strong a spark at retard as when fully 

advanced. 


440 


The Automobile Handbook 


As the speed becomes slower a spring D 
brings the weights together again, so that by 
the time the motor has come to rest the magneto 
is fully retarded. 

In the rear end of the governor housing there 
is a transverse slot into which fits a key, fur- 



Fig. 201 

Magneto Used on the Ford Cars 
nished with each magneto. When this key is 
shoved in as far as it cam go the armature is 
fixed in the position where the platinum con¬ 
tacts begin to open. The coupling may be 
screwed up with the assurance that the magneto 
is correctly set and without danger of damag¬ 
ing the armature. 

































































































































The Automobile Handbook 


441 


Ford Magneto. The Ford magneto, Fig. 
201 is of a peculiar design, it being constructed 
as an integral part of the flywheel, in which A 
is the support for the magneto coils; BBB, mag¬ 
neto coils; CC, permanent horseshoe magnets; 
DD, the flywheel; E, planetary pinions; F low 
sneed brake band; G, reverse brake band; H, 
disc-clutch for high speed; I, transmission 




Fig. 203 

F ' S ' ^Details of Ford Magneto 

brake; J, clutch rocker shaft, and K, high speed 
clutch spring. The permanent magnets, whic 
are U-shaped, are bolted to the forward face of 
the flywheel, as shown in Fig. 202. Close m front 

of their outer ends is a series of '"fjf^eel 
mounted in a circle of practically { 

diameter, with their axes parallel with t 
the crankshaft. They are supported upon a 

stationary spider, as shown in Fig. 203- . As 
flywheel revolves, this magnet and coil com 
bination, which is similar to that used on some 






442 


The Automobile Handbook 


types of alternating current generators, pro¬ 
duces a current which is used through a four- 
TJimt current timer to cause the ignition spark. 
The magneto is of the inductor type, the arma¬ 
ture coils being stationary, and the field mag¬ 
nets moved past them. Sixteen separate field 
magnets are used, made of vanadium-tungsten 
steel. They are substantially horseshoe shape 
being secured to the side of the flywheel as illus¬ 
trated m Fig. 203. They are held in place by 
screws at their middle, and by clamps near their 
poles, all screws used for fastening them being 
.securely locked in place by wire locks. 

The magnets are so arranged that like poles 
are adjacent to each other, forming a six¬ 
teen pole field magnet crown. Instead of being 
placed close against the flywheel, these mag¬ 
nets are clamped against a ring of non-magnetic 
material (brass for instance), in order to re¬ 
duce leakage of magnetism through the fly- 
■ylieel rim. At their middle these magnets are 
fastened directly to the flywheel, as at this point 
they are neutral, and there can be no leakage. 

series of sixteen armature coils is carried on 
a con supporting ring slightly in front of the 
flywheel, as shown in Fig. 202. These coils are 
wound with heavily insulated magnet wire, and 
are so grouped around the supporting ring that 
the winding of adjacent coils is in different di¬ 
rections, one being wound clockwise, and the 
next one counter clockwise. The coils are con¬ 
nected in series, the terminals being brought 


The Automobile Handbook 


443 


out near the top of the casing. As the poles 
of the magnets are located opposite and very 
close to the coils, the magnetic circuits are com¬ 
pleted by the cores of these coils and the coil 
support. There are evidently sixteen electrical 
impulses produced during the revolution of the 
crankshaft and flywheel, although only two im¬ 
pulses are required for the ignition of the mo¬ 
tor, one per stroke. However, as the armature 
circuit is closed only when a spark is wanted,, 
a current only flows at that period, and there 
is no loss from the other impulses. 

Mea Magneto. The most noticeable differ¬ 
ence between the Mea magneto and other stand¬ 
ard forms is that the magnets are bell-shaped 
and are placed horizontally and with their axes- 
in line with the armature shaft. This is a dis¬ 
tinct variation from the customary horseshoe 
magnets placed at right angles. This makes, 
possible the simultaneous movement of the mag¬ 
nets and breaker instead of the advance and 

retard of the breaker alone. 

It will be seen that, as a result of this con¬ 
struction, the relative position of armature and 
field at the moment of sparking is absolutely 
maintained, and the same quality of spark is 
therefore produced, no matter what the timing 

may be. . ; 

Fig. 204 shows a longitudinal section ot a 

four-cylinder instrument. In the bell-shaped 



'444 


The Automobile Handbook 


magnet 100, having the poles on a horizontal 
line near the driven end of the magneto, rotates 
armature 1 in ball bearings 17 and 18. The 
armature consists mainly of an I-shaped iron 
core, mounted on a spindle, and wound with a 
heavy primary winding of a few turns and a 
light secondary winding of many turns. On 
this armature are also mounted the condenser 
12, the collector ring 4, and the low-tension 



Fig. 204 
Mea Magneto 


breaker 26-39. The latter is built up of a disc 
27, which carries the short platinum contact 33; 
the other contact point 34 is adjustable and 
supported by a spring 20, which in turn is fas¬ 
tened to the insulated plate 28 mounted on disc 
27. The breaker is actuated by the fibre roller 




























































The Automobile Handbook 


445 


31 in connection with cam disc 40, which is 
provided with two cams and located inside the 
breaker, being fastened to the field structure. 

In revolving with the armature the roller 
presses against the spring supported part of the 
breaker whenever it rolls over the two cams and 
in this manner opens the breaker twice eveiy 
revolution. Inspection of the breaker points is 
made possible by means of an opening in the 
side of the breaker box, provided at the point 
of the circumference at which the breaker opens. 
The box is closed by a cover 74, supporting at 
its center the carbon holder 47, by means of 
which the carbon 46 is pressed against screw 24. 
This latter screw connects with one end of the 
low tension winding, while the other end. is 
connected to the core of the armature. It will,, 
therefore, be seen that the breaker ordinarily 
short-circuits the low tension winding and that 
this short-circuit is broken only when the break¬ 
er opens; it will also be apparent that when 
the screw 24 is grounded through terminal 50 
and the low-tension switch to which it is con¬ 
nected the low-tension winding remains peima- 
nently’ short-circuited, so that the magneto will 
not spark. The entire breaker can be removed 

by loosening screw 24. . 

The high tension current is collected from col¬ 
lector ring 4 by means of brush 77 and brush 
holder 76, which are supported by a removable 
cover 91, which also supports the low tension 
grounding brush 78 provided' to relieve the ball 


446 


The Automobile Handbook 


bearing of all current which might be injurious. 
Cover 91 also carries the safety cap 89, which 
protects the armature from excessive voltages in 
case the magneto becomes disconnected from the 
spark plugs. 

The distributer consists of the stationary part 
70 and the rotating part 66, which is driven 
from the armature shaft through steel and 
bronze gears 7 and 72. The current reaches this 
distributer from carbon 77 through bridge 84 
and carbon 69. It is conducted to brushes 68 
placed at right angles to each other and making 
contact alternately with four contact plates em¬ 
bedded in part 70. These plates are connected 
to contact holes in the top of the distributer, 
into which the terminals of cables leading to the 
different cylinders are placed. 

In the front plate of the magneto is provided 
a small window, behind which appear numbers 
engraved on the distributer gear which corre¬ 
spond to the numbers marked on the top of the 
distributer. This indicator allows a setting or 
resetting after taking out, without the necessity 
of opening up the magneto to find out where 
the distributer makes contact. Numbers on in¬ 
dicator and distributer show the sequence of 
sparks, not the numbers of cylinders which the 
magneto is firing, as the sequence of firing 
varies with different'motors. 

The variation of timing is effected by turn¬ 
ing the magneto proper in the stationary base 
which is accomplished through the spark lever 


The Automobile Handbook 


447 


connections attached to one - of the side lugs. 
The spark is advanced by turning the magneto 
in the direction of the rotation of the armature. 

If the magneto is defective, the trouble will 
usually be located in the breaker. The plati¬ 
num contacts burn off in time and a readjust¬ 
ment becomes necessary, although this should be 
the case only at very long intervals. The ad¬ 
justment should be such that the breaker begins 
to open with the armature in the position of 
greatest current flow, and that the distance be¬ 
tween contact points when fully open is about 
1/64 inch or slightly more. The small gauge 
attached to the magneto wrench may be used 
for checking this adjustment. The small lock 
nut of the contact screw must be tightened se¬ 
curely after each readjustment of the contacts. 

In addition any oil or dirt reaching the con¬ 
tact points will in time form a fine film which 
prevents perfect short-circuit of the low-tension 
winding. If the condition of these points is 
very bad, or if a complete inspection of the 
breaker is desired, the latter should be removed 
from the breaker box. This can readily be done 
by loosening the long center screw holding the 
breaker to the armature, and screwing it into 
the small tapped hole provided in the breaker, 
so that it may be used as a handle in lifting 
the breaker out. The cleaning of the pointe 
should be done with a fine crocus paper, or if 
necessary, with a very fine file, after which a 





448 


The Automobile Handbook 


piece of very fine cloth should be passed through 
between the points so as to remove all sand or 
filings. Special care must be taken not to round 
off the edges of the contact points; the satisfac¬ 
tory operation of a magneto depends largely 
upon the perfect contact at this point, and the 
whole surface of the contacts should therefore 
touch. 

Remy Magnetos, The first models of Remy 
magnetos were constructed on the inductor prin¬ 
ciple which may be understood by reference to 
Figure 205. The magnets M are of the horse¬ 
shoe type and have their positive and negative 
poles on opposite sides of the rotating inductor 
A which is made of laminated iron and carried 
on the driving shaft S, The inductor consists 
of a central portion having extensions at each 
end, the extension at one end pointing one way 
while the other extension points in the opposite 
direction. Around the center of the inductor is 
- wound a stationary primary coil C. 

With the parts as shown in position 1 the flow 
of magnetism from the positive to the negative 
magnet pole passes downward through the coil. 
At the end of a quarter turn, position 2, the 
extensions of the inductor are midway between 
the magnet poles and the flow of magnetism is 
ready to reverse its direction. In position 3 the 
flow has reversed and a powerful current im¬ 
pulse has been induced in the coil winding. 
Continued rotation of the shaft causes a suc¬ 
cession of impulses in the coil and these cur- 


The Automobile Handbook 449 

rent waves are used, as in the revolving arma¬ 
ture magneto, for the production of a secondary 
current in a separate coil. 

The breaker mechanism used with one of the 
Remy inductor models is shown in Figure 206. 
The contact gap of this instrument may be ad¬ 
justed from outside of the housing. 



Fig. 205 

The inductor principle is not used in late* 
models of the Remy magneto, this feature being 
replaced by an armature of the shuttle type 
with a single low-tension winding. A sepa¬ 
rately mounted transformer coil is used with 
these instruments, this coil carrying a switch 
that allows use of the current from the magneto 
armature or from a set of dry cells or storage 























































450 


The Automobile Handbook 


battery, the current, from whichever source, 
passing though the same breaker, coil, distribu¬ 
tor and plugs. 

The breaker of the new models is composed of 
a steel cam mounted upon and turning with the 
armature shaft and which strikes against a 
contact piece in a pivoted arm that carries one 
of the contacts of the breaker. Except for the 



Pig. 206 

Breaker Mechanism of Remy “RD” Magneto 

movement required in altering the time of the 
spark, the contacts and the pivoted arm remain 
stationary, the cam being the only revolving 
part of the breaker mechanism. The condenser 
that is attached between the breaker contacts is 
carried in a housing that is mounted above .the 
magneto armature and between the magnet legs. 












The Automobile Handbook 


451 


A device, known as a timing button, is incor¬ 
porated on the Models “P,” “30,” “31” and 


p 

CTQ 


(D 

3 

p <w 

0<3 

P to 

CD O 

o 

tn 


►d 


p 

p 


co 

to 



“32” Remy magnetos, for the purpose of tim¬ 
ing the magneto in connection with the engine.- 






































































452 


The Automobile Handbook 


To set the magneto turn the engine crankshaft 
until the piston of No. 1 cylinder is at top cen- 



ter after the compression stroke. Press in on 
the timing button at the top of the distributor 








































































































The Automobile Handbook 


453 


and turn the magneto shaft until the timing but¬ 
ton is felt to drop into the recess on the dis¬ 
tributer gear. With the magneto in this posi¬ 
tion, make the coupling with the engine without 
paying any attention to the position of the 
breaker cam. The location of the distributer 
terminal for the plug in No. 1 cylinder is deter¬ 
mined by the direction of rotation of the mag¬ 
neto. If the magneto runs clockwise, No. 1 ter¬ 
minal is at the lower left hand corner of the dis¬ 
tributer, while for anti-clockwise drive No. 1 
terminal is at the lower right hand corner. The 
wiring for the Models “P” and “32” is shown 
in Fig. 207, while the connections for Models 
“30” and “31” are shown in Fig. 208. 

Simms Magneto. The armature is of the true 
high-tension type, on which is wound both the 
low-tension primary and high-tension secondary 
windings, connected in series. The magneto 
generates a high-tension current directly in the 
armature, and does not use an exterior coil or 
other device to step-up or transform the cur¬ 
rent. 

A safety spark gap is provided to prevent 
damage to the magneto, in the event of one or 
more of the high-tension cables becoming dis¬ 
connected from the spark plugs. This gap is 
so located that its action may be readily ob¬ 
served for the purpose of locating the cause of 

possible misfiring. 

The model “ S U D ” consists of a dual system 
in which is provided a small non-vibrating coil 


454 The Automobile Handbook 


which can be either attached to the frame or 
dash of car, as the coil is unaffected by either 
moisture or heat. 

The switch operating the battery circuit is in 
connection with the starting switch and when 
the starting pedal is depressed (thereby throw¬ 
ing the starting motor into operation) the cur¬ 
rent flows through the switch coil and magneto. 




Fig. 209 

Magnets and Extended Pole Pieces of Simms 

Magneto 

As soon as the engine starts, or the starting 
pedal is released, the circuit is automatically 
disconnected, and the engine runs on the mag¬ 
neto. One of the principal features of the 
Simms magneto is the extended pole shoe, shown 
in Fig. 209. 





















The Automobile Handbook 


455 


To time the magneto to engine: Turn the 
engine over by the starting crank until No. 1 
piston reaches top dead center on compression 
or firing stroke. Remove the dust cover, or it 
a dual magneto, the commutator, and turn the 
armature shaft until the figure 1 appears in the 
“sight-hole” of distributor, Fig. 210. This 
shows that that distributor brush is in contact 



Fig. 210 

Simms High Tension Magneto 


with distributor post 1. Retard the contact 
breaker and move the armature, either to the 
right or left, as occasion requires, until the plat¬ 
inum'points just break, or, in other words, just 
separate. With the magneto in this position 
couple it to the engine (W dead center on com- 
















456 


The Automobile Handbook 


pression stroke), and connect the remaining ter¬ 
minals up in the proper firing order of the 
engine. 

For timing the model S U D, proceed as 
above. The above instructions relative to en¬ 
gine position apply also in this instance. The 
only change is as follows: 

For locating the position of the carbon brush 
on No. 1 distributer segment, remove the dis¬ 
tributer, which is held in place by means of two 
spring clips, and turn the armature shaft until 
the distributer brush is brought into position, 
namely, opposite No. 1 segment. 

If the magneto is not firing, try the follow¬ 
ing test. While the motor is running, discon¬ 
nect one of the high tension cables from spark 
plug, being careful not to touch the metal ter¬ 
minal, and hold the cable with the terminal 
close, about Yg" to 3/16', to any part of the 
motor. This will show the strength of the spark 
and each cable may be tested in turn. If the 
magneto is not delivering a good spark, examine 
the contact breaker. The break or gap between 
the platinum points, when open due to the cam 
action, should correspond to the thickness of the 
gauge furnished, which is approximately .015. 

Splitdorf Magneto. The system used in old¬ 
er models is that having an armature with but 
one winding, and giving a current of compara¬ 
tively low tension. The current is discharged 
through a transformer having a low and a high- 
tension winding somewhat similar to regular 


The Automobile Handbook 


457 


spark coil. This steps the current up to a volt¬ 
age sufficiently high to enable it to jump the 
necessary gap between the points of a spaik 
plug in the compressed mixture in the cylinder 

of the motor. 

The plain H, or shuttle, armature is mounted 
between two annular ball bearings, Fig. 211. 
One end of the shaft is the driving end and the 
other is equipped with the breaker cam and the 



Fig. 211 

Section Through Splitdorf Magneto 

insulation plug which delivers the current gen¬ 
erated in the armature to the collector brushes 
from which it is transmitted to the transformer 

connection. 

From A, Fig. 212, the armature current goes 
through the primary of the transformer, return¬ 
ing through the binding post No. 2 to the con¬ 
tact screw bracket on the breaker box. No. 3 is 
a common ground connection for both the mag¬ 
neto and transformer. The circuit being broken 























































458 


The Automobile Handbook 


at the proper moment, a very high voltage cur¬ 
rent is induced in the secondary winding of the 
transformer, and being delivered to the heavily 
insulated cable D, is conducted to the central 
brush of the distributor, whence it is delivered 
to the spark plugs in the different cylinders in 
correct sequence. 



Wiring of Model “S” Splitdorf Magneto 


In addition to using the current from the 
magneto, the transformer may be used as a 
spark coil by using the breaker mechanism of 
the magneto in the circuit to interrupt a cur¬ 
rent from the battery, which can be switched 
in for starting purposes or for an emergency. 
The distributor is used to deliver the current 
thus generated to the spark plugs. This gives a 
dual system with one set of spark plugs, and 
the movement of the switch controls both sys¬ 
tems. Fig. 213. 


































The Automobile Handbook 459 

/ 

A later development is the new standard 
“T S” type of transformer, Fig. 214, which 
has practically superseded all other types, par- 



Fig. 213 

Wiring of Splitdorf Magneto With Transformer 

Coil 

ticularly as it does away with the separate 
switch and still leaves the dash free. Both leads 
from the battery must run direct to transformer. 


To Plugs 

















































































460 


The Automobile Handbook 


After securing the magneto to the prepared 
base on the motor, crank it until cylinder No. 
1 is exactly on its firing center (i. e., the point 
of greatest compression. The motor must re¬ 
main in this position until the balance of the 
work is finished. 

Retard the spark advance mechanism at the 
steering wheel to its limit and connect it to the 
spark advance lever on the breaker box of the 
magneto, so that if the magneto shaft revolves 
in a clockwise direction looking at the driving 
end, the breaker box lever will be at its top¬ 
most position. If the shaft revolves left-handed 
the lever should be at the bottom limit, and ad¬ 
vanced upward. 

Now revolve the armature shaft in its direc¬ 
tion of rotation until the oval breaker cam 
comes in contact with the roller in the breaker 
bar and begins to separate the platinum contacts. 

If it is desired to start on the magneto side, 
ignoring the battery entirely, advance the spark 
mechanism about one-half or two-thirds of the 
way and crank as before. No back kick should 
be observed. Do not drive the motor with the 
spark retarded, but as far advanced as the 
motor will permit. 

If the platinum contacts after much usage 
become pitted so that a bad contact results, 
they can be filed flat with a fine file, taking 
care not to file off any more than is necessary. 
Then reset the screw so that the break is not 
more than .025 of an inch. 


The Automobile Handbook 461 

Don’t forget to occasionally brush the dis¬ 
tributer disc and interior of distributer block 
clean of any accumulation of carbon dust. 

The “E U” magneto is a ne\V high tension 
machine designed for four cylinder motors de¬ 
veloping as high as 40 horse power. 

The construction of this magneto embodies 
an aluminum base to which the pole pieces are 
secured, and between which revolves an arma¬ 
ture on two annular ball bearings. The circuit 
breaker is attached to one end of the armature 
shaft and revolves with it. The magneto is 
self-contained, having both a primary and sec¬ 
ondary winding on the armature. 

The high tension winding of the armature is 
connected to a collector ring, imbedded in a 
spool mounted on the driving end of the arma¬ 
ture shaft. From this ring a carbon brush leads 
the current through a water-proof holder to the 
center of the distributer disc. 

The cam holder may be shifted to the extent 
of 30 degrees, enabling an advance or retard of 
the spark to be obtained, thereby causing igni¬ 
tion to take place earlier or later. 

The condenser necessary for the protection of 
the platinum points and the proper functioning 
of the machine is placed in the driving head of 
the armature and revolves with it. 

The distributer consists of a disc of insulating 
material having a metal segment to which the 
high tension current is led from the collector 
brush. The distributer block has four small 



462 


The Automobile Handbook 


carbon pencil brushes which lead the current to 
the brass connection imbedded in the block, to 
which the plug wires are fastened. The posi¬ 
tion of the segment on the disc can be seen 
through the little window in the face of the 
distributer block for the purpose of setting the 
machine when timing. 

A spark gap for the protection of the arma¬ 
ture winding is located at the inside end of the 
brush holder under the magnets. 

The main bearings of the magneto are pro¬ 
vided with oil cups, and a few drops of light 
oil every 1,000 miles are sufficient to lubricate 
them. The breaker arm should be lubricated 
v ith a diop of light oil applied with a toothpick 
to the hole in the bronze bearing pivoted on 
the steel pin. The cams are lubricated by a felt 
packing, and a little oil applied to the holes in 
the edge of the cams will last a long time; any 
surplus oil should be removed and care taken 

to prevent any oil getting on the platinum 
points. 

The proper distance between the platinum 
points when separated should be .020 or 1/50 of 
an inch. A bronze gauge of the proper size is 
attached to the wrench furnished for the adjust¬ 
ment of the platinum screw and lock nut. 

The fibre roller on the end of the breaker arm 
is held in position by a pawl spring. The wear¬ 
ing surface of the roller may be renewed by 
rotating the same a quarter turn, thus bringing 
a neV' surface to bear on the cam, and as there 


The Automobile Handbook 


463 


are four slots in the roller four wearing surfaces 
are available. 

To time the magneto, rotate the crank shaft 
so as to bring the piston No. 1 cylinder 1/16 
of an inch ahead of the upper dead center of 
the compression stroke. With the timing lever 
fully retarted, the platinum points of the cir¬ 
cuit breaker should be about to separate. Some 
motors may require an earlier setting. 

The distributor segment should show in the 
little window in the block and the plug wire to 
No. 1 cylinder should be fastened under the 
brass nut directly over the segment. The rest 
of the plug wires should be fastened in turn 
according to the proper sequence of firing of 
the cylinders to which they lead. 




464 


The Automobile Handbook 


MAGNETO WIRING DIAGRAMS. 



Insulated Systems 


To Spark Plugs 



Fig. 216 

Wiring of Bosch Two Spark Magneto, 
Models D and DR 



























































































Tlit Automobile Handbook 


46t> 



Fig. 217 ' 

Wiring for Eisemann Dual Magneto, Model EM 4 


jeeAB view or cou. 

































































































































tttt 


466 


The Automobile Handbook 



Fig. 219 

Wiring for Heinze .Transformer Coil Magneto 



Fig. 220 

Wiring for Kingston Transformer Coil Magnetos. 

Models M and L 





























































































The Automobile Handbook 


467 



Fig. 221 

Wiring for Remy R D Magneto 



Batteries 



5R££N- 

YEtJ-eW- 




Fig. 222 

Wiring for Remy R L Magneto 





































































































A T, 


468 


The Automobile Handbook 


v 


-o=] 



f 

f- 1 




r 



oBBtt 




Fig. 223 

Wiring for Remy Magnetos, Models P and 32 



. . Fig. 224 

Wiring for Remy Magnetos, Models 30 and 31 
Showing Two Spark Distributor 








































































































































The Automobile Handbook 


469 



Wiring 


Fig. 225 

r Simms Magneto Model SU4-D 



Wiring for SimnS ^Magneto Model SU4-S 

























































470 


The Automobile Handbook 





Fig. 227 

Wiring for Splitdorf Magnetos, 
Models A, B, D, F, 0 and T 





















































































The Automobile Handbook 


471 


































































472 


The Automobile Handbook 


Induction Coil. The form of coil generally 

used on gasoline cars is known as the jump- 
spark coil. It is of two types, one known as a 
plain or single jump-spark, the other as a vi¬ 
brator or trembler coil. 

A jump-spark coil consists essentially of a 
bundle of soft iron wire, known as the core, 
over which are wound several layers of coarse 
•or large size insulated copper wire, called the 
primary winding. Over this are again wound 
a, great many thousand turns of very fine or 
small wire, known as the secondary winding. 

Inertia. Inertia is that property of a body 
by which it tends to continue in the state of 
rest or motion in which it may be placed, until 
acted upon by some force. As used by the non¬ 
technical, it is almost universally employed in 
the former sense, i. e., that of the resistance 
which a body offers against a change in its po¬ 
sition, an inert body usually being intended, so 
that the definition is perfectly correct so far 
as it goes. The popular impression is that only 
inert bodies have inertia, it being likewise gen¬ 
erally thought that a moving body is possessed 
of momentum alone, whereas an object at rest 
is possessed of inertia, and the same object in 
mo\ ement has ooth momentum and inertia. 

Insulating Material. Asbestos, lava, and mica 
are severally used for the insulation of spark 
plugs and sparking devices. 

A ulcanized fiber or hard rubber or even hard 
wood are llsed f or the bases of switches, con- 


The Automobile Handbook 


473 


nection boards and other places. 

India rubber, or gutta-percha form the basis 
of the insulated covering of wires used for elec¬ 
trical purposes. The coils of small magnets and 
the cores of induction coils are usually wound 
with cotton covered wire, or in some instances 
the fine wire is silk covered, as in the case of 

secondary or jump-spark coils. 

Joints, Ball and Socket. To produce a flexible 
joint capable of operation within certain limi¬ 
tations in any direction, the ball and socket 
form of joint is generally used on the ends, of 
the rod which connects the arm of the steering 
mechanism with the steering lever attached to 
the hub of one of the steering pivots of the 

front axle. 



(• i 



i ; i— 

*—i—i— 


l i-i- 

uJj 

rr^— 

W 


KNUCKLE JOINT 


Fig. 230 


































474 


The Automobile Handbook 

Joints, Knuckle. Swivel or knuckle-joints 

for connecting the steering arm of the wheel, or 
lever steering mechanism to the arms on the 
knuckle-joints of the steering wheels are of va¬ 
rious forms. Figures 230 and 232 show knuckle- 
joints which may be used for the above pur¬ 
pose. They are of simple construction and 
practically inexpensive to make. They may be 
used with any standard drop-forged jaw-ends. 

Joint—Universal. The elementary form of a 
universal-joint or flexible coupling consists of a 
spiral spring. Such a form of universal-joint is 
sometimes used to drive a rotary pump, or a 
small generator on a car. The rear wheels or 
axle of a car are sometimes driven by means of 
a longitudinal shaft with a quarter-turn drive 
on a counter shaft, or a bevel gear drive at¬ 
tached to the differential gear of the rear axle. 
In such cases some form of universal-joint is 
necessary to allow the rear wheels and axle to 
accommodate themselves to the inequalities of 
the road surface. Three forms of universal- 
joints are shown in Figure 233 The upper view 
m the drawings shows the form most generally 
used on motor-cars, for the purposes just de¬ 
scribed. The one shown in the center view will 
allow a greater amount of angular distortion 
than the form shown in the upper view, but is 
of a more expensive construction. Where only 
a slight amount of angular distortion is needed, 
the construction shown in the lower figure in 
the drawing is very suitable, the two jaws or 


The Automobile Handbook 


475 


knuckles of the joint being flexibly attached 
by means of a plate of spring steel. 

A form of universal joint, or flexible coup¬ 
ling, of recent introduction, is that making use 
of leather or other flexible material securely 
fastened to two forked members in such a way 
that with the members placed at an angle to 
each other, power is delivered from one to the 
other through the flexible material that is 

fastened to both of them. 

Large powers are transmitted in this way by 
using a ring of heavy material similar to tire 
fabric and fastening the couplings of the two 
shafts to this ring at alternate positions by 
secure fastenings and bolts. The difference in 
alignment is taken care of by the ring of flex¬ 
ible material, and it has been found that this 
form of drive is quite free from trouble, and, 
of course, requires neither lubrication or cover¬ 
ing against dust and dirt. 

The flexible disc universal is largely used on 

motor trucks where the angle between the shafts 
to be joined is comparatively small and not sub¬ 
ject to any great variations in angularity. The 
number of discs may be made in proportion to 

the load to be transmitted. . 

The form of compensating joint shown m 

Figure 231 may be operated with the axes of 
the shafts at an angle to each other, or with the 
shafts out of alignment with each other m ver¬ 
tical or horizontal parallel planes, and has quite 
a range of operation with either condition. Both 




476 The Automobile Handbook 



Fig. 231 


forms of the device require to have bearings on 
either side, as shown, to insure their proper 
working. 







Fig. 232 


























































































The Automobile Handbook 


477 



Fid. 233 


























































































































478 


The Automobile Handbook 


Kerosene as a Fuel. Kerosene has been used 
as an explosive power, and crude petroleum is 
gaining favor as an efficient liquid fuel. With 
a specific gravity varying from 0.78 to 0.82, 
and a vapor flashing point at 120 to 125 de¬ 
grees Fahr., kerosene ignites at 135 degrees 
Fahr., and boils at 400 degrees Fahr. Its vapor 
is five times heavier than air, and requires 76 
cubic feet of air to one cubic foot of vapor for 
its combustion, giving 22,000 heat units per 
pound, or 4,000 more than gasoline. 

In using kerosene as a fuel for the ordinary 
types of gasoline engines it will generally be 
found that the compression may be slightly low¬ 
ered to good advantage. A high grade of rather 
heavy bodied oil must be used and the oil should 
be drained from the crankcase and the case 
washed out at least v every five hundred miles. 

It is difficult, if not quite impossible, to start 
the engine using kerosene as a fuel unless the 
cylinders and cooling water are still hot from 
previous running. Carburetors for the use of 
kerosene are therefore generally so arranged 
that gasoline, or a mixture of gasoline and kero¬ 
sene, may be used for starting when cold. Two 
separate carburetors, joined by means of a two 
way valve, may be used or a single carburetor 
with two fioat bowls, one for each fuel, may be 
employed. Still other types provide a small • 
amount of gasoline which burns for a minute* or 
two after starting. The fuel itself, also the in¬ 
coming air should be well heated. 


The Automobile Handbook 


479 


Water vapor from an additional jet may or 
may not be used with the kerosene mixture. 
Under heavy loads at low speeds water may be 
added to the mixture with good results in pre¬ 
venting preignition. 

Knocking—Locating Cause of. Tracing a 
knock is sometimes a puzzling job. It may be 
in one of the main bearings of the engine, in 
the camshaft bearings, in a loose valve lifter, 
in a loose camshaft gear key, in a loose pump 
or magneto drive coupling, an unsuspected 
loose bolt between two parts supposed to be 
fast, or in any of a dozen, or score of other un¬ 
suspected places. A valuable aid in locating a 
mysterious knock is a flexible speaking tube 
such as is used with phonographs. One end of 
such a tube can be held to the ear and the 
other moved about from point to point until 
the exact spot is found where the noise is loud¬ 
est. Another aid is a light bar of iron, one end 
of which is pressed against the part where the 
knock is suspected and the other touched to the 
forehead or the teeth, when the sound is clearly 
transmitted. 

Knocking or pounding is an inevitable warn¬ 
ing that something is wrong with a motor. It 
may be due to any of the following causes: 

Premature ignition: The sound produced by 
premature ignition may be described as a deep, 
heavy pound. 

Using a poor grade of lubricating oil will 
cause premature ignition. The carbon from the 



480 The Automobile Handbook 

6il will deposit on the head of the piston in 
cakes and lumps, and will not only increase the 
compression, but will get hot after running a 
short time and will ignite the charge too early, 
and thereby produce the same effect as advanc¬ 
ing the spark too much. If this is the cause the 
pounding will cease as soon as the carbon de¬ 
posit is removed from the combustion chamber. 

Badly worn or broken piston-rings. 

Improper valve seating. 

A badly worn piston. 

Piston striking some projecting point in the 
combustion chamber. 

A loose wrist-pin in the piston. 

A loose journal-box cap or lock-nut. 

A broken spoke or web in the flywheel. 

Flywheel loose on its shaft. 

If the spark plug be placed so as to be ex¬ 
actly in the center of the combustion space, an 
objectionable knock occurs, which has never 
been fully explained. In some motors it ren¬ 
ders a particular position of the spark control 
lcvci unusable; this form of knock disappears 
either on making a slight advance or retarda¬ 
tion of the ignition. 

Explosions occurring during the exhaust or 
admission stroke. This is almost always due to 
a previous misfire, and it is prevented by stop¬ 
ping the misfires. 

Ij the ignition is so timed that the gases reach 
their full explosion pressure during the com¬ 
pression stroke, that is, if the spark be unduly 


The Automobile Handbook 


481 


advanced when the motor is not running at a 
high speed, an ugly knock occurs, and great 
pressure is developed on the crank-pin bearing, 
wrist-pin, and connecting rod. The result may 
be the bending or distorting of the rod. 

The crank-pin may not be at right angles to 
the connecting rod. 

The bearings at either end of the connecting 
rod may be loose. A knock during the explo¬ 
sion stroke, and also at each reversal of the 
direction of the piston. 

If the crank shaft is not perfectly at right 
angles to the connecting rod, the crank shaft 
and flywheel will travel sideways so as to strike 
the crank shaft bearings on one side or the 
other. 

Lamps, Electric. The small incandescent 
lamps used for automobile lighting are almost 
invariably of the tungsten filament variety. 
Two types are in use, considered from the bulb 
standpoint, one of which exhausts the air from 
the bulb until a high degree of vacuum is 
secured, and the other one of which replaces 
the air with the inert gas, nitrogen. One is 
called the vacuum bulb and the other the nitro¬ 
gen bulb. Two types of bulb base are in use, 
the single contact, in which one side of the cir¬ 
cuit is secured through metal of the base, and 
the double contact with two insulated leads. 
Lamp bulbs vary in diameter from % to 2-1/16 
inches. 

Lighting, see Starting and Lighting Systems 



482 The Automobile Handbook 

Lubrication. To ensure easy running, and 
reduce the element of friction to a minimum it 
is absolutely necessary that all surfaces rubbing 
together should be supplied with oil or lubri¬ 
cating giease, but it is also a fact, not so well 
understood, that different kinds of lubricant 
are necessary to the different parts or mechan¬ 
isms of a motor car. 

As the cylinder of an explosive motor oper¬ 
ates under a far higher temperature than is 
possible in a steam engine, consequently the oil 
intended for use in the motor cylinders must 
be of such quality that the point at which it will 

burn or carbonize from heat is as high as possi¬ 
ble. 

While a number of animal and vegetable oils 
have a flashing point, and yield a fire test suf¬ 
ficiently high to come within the above require¬ 
ments, they all contain acids or other sub¬ 
stances which have a harmful effect on the 
metal surfaces it is intended to lubricate. 

Lubricating Oils. The qualities essential in 
a lubricating oil for use in motor cylinders in¬ 
clude a flashing point of not less than 500 de¬ 
grees Fahrenheit, and fire test of at least 600 
degrees, together with a specific gravity of 25.8. 

At 350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit, lubricating 
oils are as fluid as kerosene, therefore the ad¬ 
justment of the feed should be made when the 
lubricator and its contents are at their normal 
eat, which depends on its location in the car. 
bteam engine oils are unsuitable for the dry 


The Automobile Handbook 


483 


s 


neat of motor cylinders in which they are de¬ 
composed whilst the tar is deposited. 

All oils will carbonize at 500 to 600 degrees 
Fahrenheit, bnt graphite is not affected by 
over 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit, which is the ap¬ 
proximate temperature of the burning gases in 
an explosive motor. The cylinder of these mo¬ 
tors may attain an average temperature of 300 
to 400 degrees Fahrenheit. So that graphite 
would be very useful if it could be introduced 
into the motor cylinder without danger of clog¬ 
ging the valves, and could be fed uniformly. 
These difficulties have not yet been overcome. 
Graphite is chiefly useful for plain-bearings and 
chains. 

The film of oil between a shaft and its bear¬ 
ing is under a pressure corresponding to the 
load on the bearing, and is drawn in against 
that pressure by the shaft. It might not be 
thought possible that the velocity of the shaft 
and the adhesion of the oil to the shaft could 
produce a sufficient pressure to support a heavy 
load, but the fact may be verified by drilling a 
hole in the bearing and attaching a pressure 
gauge. 

Roller and ball-bearings provide spaces, in 
which, if the oil used contains any element of 
an oxidizing or gumming nature, a deposit or 
an adhesive film forms upon the sides of the 
chamber, the rollers or balls, and the axle. This 
deposit will add to the friction, hence it is the 



484 


The Automobile Handbook 


more important to use a good oil, or a petro¬ 
leum jelly in such bearings. 

Air-cooled motors, being hotter than water- 
cooled, must have a different lubricant, or one 
capable of withstanding higher temperatures. 

The effect upon animal or vegetable oils of 
such heat would be to partially decompose the 
oils into stearic, acids and oleic acid and the con- 
veision of these into pitch. Such oils are there¬ 
fore inadmissible for air-cooled motor use. 

Mineral oils are not so readily decomposed 
by heat, but at their boiling points they are 
converted into gas, and any oil, the boiling 
point of which is in the neighborhood of the 
woi king temperature of the motor cylinder, is 
useless, as its body is too greatly reduced to 
lea\ c an effective working film of oil between 
the cylinder and the motor piston. 

The essentials for the proper lubrication of 
air-cooled motors are: 

That the oil should not decompose. 

That it should not volatilize, as this will re¬ 
sult in carbon deposits. 

Ihat. its viscosity should be equal to that of 
a good steam engine oil at similar temperatures. 

That it should be fluid enough to permit of 
its easy introduction into the cylinder. 

That it will have no corrosive effect on the 
cylinders and no tendency to gum. 

d hat it will not oxidize with exposure to air 
and light. 

The specific gravity of an oil is the ratio of 


The Automobile Handbook 


485 


weight of a volume of oil to that of an equal 
volume of water. 

The fire point is the degree of heat at which 
oil begins to burn with a steady flame. 

The flash point is the degree of heat at which 
the oil begins to give a slight explosion or flash 
from the evolved gas when a flame is held close 
to the surface of the heated oil. 

The cold point is the degree of temperature 
at which the oil begins to thicken from chilling. 

The viscosity is the property of cohesion, or 
the ability of the particles of the oil to cling to 
each other; also adhesion, or the ability of the 
oil to cling to surfaces with which it comes in 
contact. 

The meaning of the term “body,” as used in 
describing oils, is the oil’s power of resistance 
to pressure and high heat without breaking down 
and losing its lubricating qualities. An oil of 
good body spreads evenly over the surfaces to 
be lubricated and maintains an even thickness 
of film. 

Flywheel Oiling Systems. In the Ford fly¬ 
wheel system of oiling illustrated in Fig. 234, 
the flywheel casing serves as an oil reservoir, 
and the rotation of the wheel throws the oil up 
into pockets, from whence it is conducted 
through*pipes to the crank-case. The angle of 
the pipes is such that even on extreme grades 
there is sufficient drop to insure a flow of oil. 
A depression M is found in the crank case be¬ 
neath each connecting rod, in order to limit 



486 


The Automobile Handbook 

the amount of oil carried in the crankcase, and 

also to insure an even level of oil within the 
case. 



Dmlling Oil Passages in the Crank Shaft. 
lgs 235 and 236 show two different methods 
of drilling the crankshaft to convey the oil to 


















































The Automobile Handbook 


487 


the crankpins, and it will be noticed that the 
oil holes discharge at the highest point of the 
revolution, corresponding to the position of the 
piston at the beginning of the power or firing 
stroke. The supply is received by the main 
hearings from the oil pump and the oil hole in 
the shaft, coinciding with that from the oiler 
has a little oil forced in each revolution and, 
generating centrifugal force throws it rapidly 
through the passages. The majority of modern 
motors are equipped with splash lubrication 
and have the connecting rods dip into the oil 



Fig. 235 


each revolution and splash it all over the inside 
of the crankcase. Some types are equipped 
with a scoop pointing in the direction of rota¬ 
tion, at the lower end of a passage connecting 
with the crank pin. The oil is sent into these 
passages with considerable force, owing to 
speed of rotation, thus assuring sufficient oil to 
the connecting rod bearings. 

This is worked to the ends of the bearing and 
thrown off in the shape of a fine mist that pen¬ 
etrates to every part of the crankcase. The oil 
splashed onto the lower cylinder walls and not 




























488 


The Automobile Handbook 


carried up by the piston is caught in little 
troughs, cast in the crankcase and drilled so 
that the oil runs down to the main bearings. 
In addition to the pipe from the oiler, the bet¬ 
ter designs provide an oil wick, or an oil ring 
or chain, all types carrying oil from a shallow 
pocket corded in the bearing cap, the wick by 
capillary attraction, and the ring or chain, re¬ 
volving with the shaft, their lower ends im¬ 
mersed in the oil will carry up a considerable 
quantity that will spread over the shaft. This 



oil ring system is used very successfully in elec¬ 
trical machinery. With a splash lubrication it 
is advisable to drain the crankcase at frequent 
intervals, and also to put in a fresh supply of 
oil. 

Care should be exercised to select heavy oil 
for air-cooled engines or old engines, and a com¬ 
paratively light oil for new cars. 

Cylinder Oil Testing. There are really 
two parts to the fire test, as it is called. One is 
the test for flash point. This may be determined 

































The Automobile Handbook 


489 


as follows: Take two pieces of glass of the 
same size, and large enough to cover a small 
glass beaker. In one of them cut a couple of 
notches. These are for two purposes. One is 
for the thermometer and the other for the flash 
point determination. Insert a thermometer in 
the beaker, filled with the oil under test. Place 
the notched glass over this and the other piece 
of glass over that, taking care to cover the 
notch not in use. Now uncover this notch, note 
the temperature, and apply a lighted match to 
the opening. If nothing results, warm the oil 
slowly over a flame to a higher temperature 
and take another trial and reading. Continue 
the test until upon the application of the 
lighted match the oil vapor over the oil flashes. 
The thermometer reading at that point gives 
the flash point. The glass plates may now be 
removed, and heating continued. The match is 
applied at similar intervals, until finally the oil 
burns, which will usually occur at about 50 de¬ 
grees above the flash point. 

An additional test is for precipitation at a 
known temperature. This is also made in a 
beaker. Two ounces is the usual amount. It 
is heated to the desired temperature, at which 
the oil may change color, but must not show a 
precipitation. Still another good oil test is the 
evaporation test. This is the result of slow 
heating, and the usual specification is that the 
oil shall not lose over 5 per cent, of its volume 
when heated to 150 degrees Fahr. for 12 hours. 



490 


The Automobile Handbook 
Lubricating Systems: 

Full Force Feed. Oil is forced by pump 
pressure to the main bearings and, by means 
of drilled holes in crank webs, to crank pins and 
through hollow connecting rods, or oil pipes 
attached thereto, to the wrist pins. Oil returns 
to sump, or reservoir, and is circulated again. 

Force Feed. Oil is forced by pump pressure, 
or the centrifugal force of the revolving fly¬ 
wheel, to main bearings and through drilled 
holes in crank webs to crank pins. The wrist 
pms and cylinder are supplied by oil thrown 
from connecting rods. The connecting rods do 

not dip. Oil returns to sump, or reservoir, and 
is circulated again. 

Force Feed and Splash. Oil is forced by 
pump pressure, or the centrifugal force of the 
revolving flywheel, to the main bearings and 
t rough drilled holes in the crank webs, to crank 
pms. The oil from the main bearings falls to 
wells in the bottom of the crank case, or to ad¬ 
justable troughs, into which the connecting rods 
dip and splash oil to all parts of the engine. 

Splash. A constant level is maintained in the 
crank case by an overflow to the sump, or reser¬ 
voir, below, whence the oil is circulated again. 

Lubrication of Gears and Clutches. The 
modern ball-bearing gear box requires but lit¬ 
tle attention. Periodic filling with suitable lub- 
ncants is sufficient. On chain-driven cars the 
gears and differential are usually exposed by 
lifting one cover. On shaft-driven cars the 


The Automobile Handbook 


491 


differential and rear axle system requires a cer¬ 
tain amount of attention, as too much oil in the 
differential is liable to leak through the axle 
sleeve and hub, usually getting on the brake 
drums. If this happens, the best thing to do is 
to jack the wheel up and squirt gasoline on the 
drum, slowly revolving it meanwhile. Manu¬ 
facturers usually put a plug in the differential 
case showing the proper height at which to keep 
the oil level. The gear box should be kept a 
little less than half full. If too much is put in, 
the oil will be thrown out of the shaft and 
bearing housings, but a little leakage does no 
harm as there is always dust present and the 
oil leaking will serve to fill the crevices and 
make the case dust-tight. In regard to the 
wheels, universal joints, clutch, and many lit¬ 
tle places about the car, all need attention oc¬ 
casionally as almost any motor car driver 
knows. 

The wheels should be cleaned and packed 
with grease once or twice a season, universal 
joints at intervals necessarily shorter. Latest 
designs provide for their lubrication through 
the shaft from the gear box. Earlier types are 
best packed in grease and enclosed in a leather 
boot. • On many shaft-driven cars, where the 
shaft runs through a sleeve, daily attention 
should be given. The lack of a few drops of 
oil may rob the car of 50 per cent of its power. 
Multiple disc clutches use oil, or an oil and ker¬ 
osene mixture, and the tendency seems to be 



492 The Automobile Handbook 

for the oil to gum. Their action when slipping 
or dragging is sufficient indication as to when 
they are in need of attention. Leather-faced 
clutches will work much better when cleaned 
with kerosene and given a dose of neatsfoot or 
castor oil. The oil should be spread over the 
mu face of the leather by using a long knife 
blade, or by running the motor for a few mo¬ 
ments with the clutch released. When treating 
the clutch leather this 1 way it is better to let 
it stand over night if possible, and with the 
emergency brake lever, or a block of wood 
against the pedal hold the clutch disengaged. 
A hand oil can with a .long spout is almost in¬ 
dispensable, and the starting crank, the steer¬ 
ing pivots and connections, and the spark and 
throttle connections, gear control and emer¬ 
gency brake levers, clutch and brake pedals, 
shafts and connections and the fan bearings 
will all work much quieter and sweeter for a 
few drops of oil regularly. It is the practice of 
drivers to fill the oil can from the cylinder oil 
supply and this practice is to be commended, 

as many lower grade oils contain acids enough 
to etch steel. 

Gear Case and Rear Axle. It is a familiar 
fact that the gear case requires to be periodic¬ 
ally emptied of oil, and the accumulated metal 
grit washed out before fresh oil is supplied. The 
same is true of the rear live axle casing, except 
that the gears in the axle do not clash and 
therefore do not wear out as fast as the change 


The Automobile Handbook 


493 


speed gears. At least once in a season the oil 
in the rear axle should be drained out, a liberal 
supply of kerosene introduced, and the axle 
jacked up while the engine is run to agitate the 
oil and wash out the differential, etc. 

Magnetic Gear Shift, The electric gear shift 
may be said to consist of two units, the “shift¬ 
ing assembly,’’ or group of magnets attached to 
the transmission case, and the “selector-switch,” 
or push-button group, located on the top of the 
steering column. The electrical current required 
to energize the magnets is derived from a stor¬ 
age battery, Fig. 237, ordinarily supplied as 
part of the starting and lighting systems on all 
cars. 

The selector-switch is made up of a number 
of buttons, one for each speed, and one for the 
“neutral” which has not electrical connection. 
There is also a button for operating the horn. 
These buttons are provided with arched, lami¬ 
nated contacts of copper, backed up with a steel 
spring and insulated from the button proper. 
The top of the switch carries a locking-plate for 
locking any button which may be depressed and 
also carries an interlock, which makes it impos¬ 
sible to press down more than one button at a 
time. At the bottom is a hard rubber base, 
which carries a copper contact for each button 
and a contact common to all speeds. It also 
serves as a base for the return spring provided 
for each button. 



494 


The Automobile Handbook 


The wiring, Fig. 238, consists of a lead pass¬ 
ing from each coil through a terminal block to 



Fig. 237 

Action of the Magnetic Gear Shift 

its particular speed button on the selector- 
switch, while the other lead from the coil is 
joined to a neutral wire directly through the 



















The Automobile Handbook 


495 


terminal block to the battery, with a master- 
switch intervening, while another wire from the 
battery passes through the terminal block to the 
contact of the selector-switch which is common 
to all speeds. The current travels from one ter¬ 
minal of the battery through the depressed push 
button on the selector-switch, down and around 
the coil selected, and then back to the other ter¬ 
minal of the battery. 


PUSH-BUTTONS ARE 
MOUNTED UNDER 
STEERING WHEEL 


4 



s' 

(R) 


® 


© 

A 

© 

_ s 


s 


flflf 

\ 

i © 

A | 

mwaj 

Xk 



wim 

Wlllihlmh 


1 GEAR SHIFTING I 
J • MECHANHSM • V_ 


IS MOUNTED ON TOP OF TRANSMISSION CASE- 


Fig. 23 8 

Connections of the Magnetic Gear Shift 
The Vulcan electric gear shift mechanism con¬ 
sists of a case which is attached to the transmis¬ 
sion housing. This case, in turn, carries the 
magnets or solenoids. These in turn surround 
the plungers on which the shifting forks which 
move the sliding gears in the transmission are 
mounted. In this case, also, is carried the oper¬ 
ating mechanism by means of which the gears 








































496 The Automobile Handbook 

are mechanically drawn to their neutral position 
through a connection with the clutch pedal. The 
case is divided into two compartments, the small- 
er of which is a pocket in which the operating 
mechanism for the neutralizing of the gears and 
the operation of the master-switch is carried. 
This compartment is entirely enclosed on the 
bottom, and is not open to the transmission case. 

The neutralizing mechanism consists of two 
shafts on which cams are mounted. One of these 
shafts carries a pawl wdiich engages with a latch 
on a rocker arm. Upon the opposite end of this 
rocker arm shaft is mounted a lever through 
which the connection with the clutch pedal is 
made. 

Assuming that all* gears are in a neutral posi¬ 
tion (that is, the sliding gears are not in mesh), 
and it is desired to start, the first speed button 
on the selector-switch is depressed, closing one 
break in the electric circuit. The operating 
lever and the shaft on which it is mounted are 
rotated and the master-switch is pulled into en¬ 
gagement through its connection with the oper¬ 
ating mechanism which engages the switch stem. 
As the gear flashes into mesh, and is within % 
inch from being 1 ‘home,” the master-switch 
snaps out instantly, due to the action of the 
master-switch spring, thus breaking the electric 
circuit. The actual time of engagement during 
which current is being drawn from the battery 
is less than 1/3 of a second. 

Being in first speed, and desiring to proceed 


The Automobile Handbook 


497 


I 


to another, the other speed button upon the se¬ 
lector-switch may be depressed at the conveni¬ 
ence of the driver. Then, when it is desired to 
shift, the clutch is fully depressed as before. 

As the neutralizing cams rotate toward the 
center, they press against a boss on whichever 
side the gear is in engagement. This mechanic¬ 
ally pulls the shifter fork and gear with which 
it is engaged back to neutral position, before the 
next shift can be made. The electric circuit is 
again made complete, the current flows from the 
battery through the solenoid selected and the 
proper gear immediately jumps into engage¬ 
ment. This action is the same for all speeds 
in the transmission. 

Should it be desired to stop, the neutral but¬ 
ton on the selector-switch is pressed. This action 
throws any other button which may have been 
depressed out of contact, that is, it automatically 
raises any other button which may have been 
depressed previously. 

Any selection may be made, at any time, by 
pressing any push button on the wheel. This 
selection, however, does not necessarily influence 
the changing of the gears in the transmission. 
In fact, nothing happens until the master-switch 
* is closed by the pressing, all the way down, of 
the clutch pedal. 

In the operation of this device the clutch 
pedal may be slipped or fully released without 
any action taking place in the gear shift mech¬ 
anism itself. This is due to the fact that the 



498 


The Automobile Handbook 


operating lever is attached to the clutch pedal 
by means of an operating rod provided with a 
link mechanism, which allows the clutch pedal 
to fully release the clutch before it starts to pull 
on the operating lever. 

Magnetism. A piece of iron or steel may be 
made a magnet under the influence of another 
piece that is already magnetic or by being acted 
upon by the electrical influence from a conductor 
carrying current. 

The magnetism in a piece of iron or steel is 
supposed to consist of a circuit and the path of 
this circuit through the magnet and the space 
surrounding it is called the path of the magnetic 
line of force. 

These lines of force pass through the metal 
of the magnet from one end to the other and 
after issuing from the magnet, travel through 
the surrounding space to re-enter it again as 
shown in Figure 239. The end of the magnet 
at which the magnetic lines of force enter the 
metal is called the South or negative pole, while 
the end from which the lines of force issue is 
called the North or positive pole. 

Magnetic lines of force reside in and act from 
iron and steel only, but they will pass through 
all other materials almost as though these other 
materials were not in their way. 

A piece of hardened steel which has been 
made a magnet has the ability to retain its mag¬ 
netism for a long period of time unless acted 
upon by outside forces such as heating or ham- 


The Automobile Handbook 


499 


mering. Such a piece of steel is called a per¬ 
manent magnet. 

These metals, when soft, carry the lines of 
force as readily as when hardened, but they 
remain magnetic and have the properties of 
magnets only while in the field of other mag¬ 
nets or of coils of wire carrying current which 
produces magnetism in the iron. 





Magneto; see Ignition, Magneto. 

Muffler, Exhaust. When the exhaust gases of 
an explosive motor are allowed to pass out 
through the exhaust pipe directly into the at¬ 
mosphere, the sharp explosions rapidly suc¬ 
ceeding each other are very annoying, and it 
is for this reason that the device termed an 
exhaust muffler is, or at least should be, used. 


















500 


The Automobile Handbook 


\ arious types of mufflers are in use, each no 
doubt possessing its own particular merit. The 
function of the muffler is to deaden the noise of 
the escaping gases, and the general require¬ 
ments of the device are as follows: (1) It must 
be built strong enough to withstand the force 
of any explosion liable to occur within it, due 
to the escape of an unexploded charge, which 
may take place in one of the engine cylinders. 
(2) It must check the velocity of the escaping 





!—-'—= 


\i^mwmmaa^aanjSannmaamnamam 

MUFFLER 

1 


Fig. 240 


gases without causing too much back pressure 
on the motor. (3) It must deaden the noise. 
The last two requirements may be attained by: 
(a) Breaking up the gases into a number of 
tine streams; (b) Allowing the gases to expand 
and cool; (c) Reducing the pressure of the 
gases, until they are as nearly as possible at 
atmospheric pressure. 

The terminal or exhaust pressure ranges at 
from 30 to 50 pounds per sq. in. above atmos¬ 
pheric pressure, while the temperature will be 
800 to 1100 degrees F. 













The Automobile Handbook 


501 _ 


Muffler Cut-Outs. Mufflers are generally 
equipped with muffler cut-outs, which by-pass 
the gas so that it exhausts direct into the at¬ 
mosphere with its attendant noise. There are 
three reasons why they are so equipped, namely: 
to tell if the engine is exploding regularly; to 
clean the exhaust pipe; to have it act as a safety 
valve in case of explosions in the muffler. If the 
power of the engine increases when the muffler 
is cut out, it is a sure sign, that the muffler is of 
defective design or needs cleaning. 

Muffler Cut-Out Valve. One form of cut¬ 
out valve is shown in Fig. 241. It is inserted 
in exhaust pipe P, by sawing a hole in its under 



side The cut-out valve housing clamps to the 
pipe by a couple of V-clamps. The valve is 
■carried in a cylindrical compartment under the 
exhaust pipe, and consists of a spring closed 
poppet valve a little larger in diameter than the 
internal diameter of the exhaust pipe. It opens 
against the exhaust pressure to prevent leakage. 


























502 


The Automobile Handbook 

Case of Mufflers. From time to time, all 
mufflers should be cleaned, because it will be 
found that they will contain a considerable 
amount of carbon deposists. These deposits not 
only tend to increase the back pressure, but 
they retain the heat of the exhaust, thus al¬ 
lowing the gases to escape at a higher tempera¬ 
ture than they should. A muffler should be 
taken apart and cleaned once a year, or oftener 
if there are any indications of loss of power, 
resultant from back pressure. 

A frequent cause of damaged or broken muf¬ 
flers is the practice of ignition testing employed 
by some mechanics. In case of trouble with 
either source of ignition, the car is run at a 
rather high speed on the good system, and the 
ignition switch is then quickly turned to the 
faulty side. If no explosions result, the switch 
is again changed. In the time during which no 

. engine, the unburned 

mixture was pumped back! into the muffler. 
When the switch is thrown to the good side 
the first power stroke sends a flame into the 
muffler with the result that an explosion occurs 
there, usually damaging the muffler seriously. 

Packing. Packing or material for making 
gas, or water-tight joints is of various kinds. 
Asbestos packing comes in sheets, called asbes¬ 
tos paper or board, in the form of woven cloth ' 
and also as string or rope. Rubber packing is 
made m sheets, either plain or with alternate 
layers of canvas and rubber. Some forms of 


The Automobile Handbook 


503 


packing are known as Rubberbestos, and Vul- 
cabestos, and are made of asbestos, impregnated 
with rubber and afterwards vulcanized. 

Picric Acid. Gasoline will absorb or take up 
about 5 per cent of its weight of picric acid. 
The addition of a small quantity of kerosene 
will enable the gasoline to absorb about 10 per 
cent of pircric acid. 

Picric acid is only dangerous when fused, or 
when in a highly compressed state. 

An increase in motor efficiency of about 20 
per cent is claimed for the picric-gasoline mix¬ 
ture. 

About three-tenths of a pound of picric acid 
is required for each gallon of gasoline. The 
mixture should be allowed to stand for two 
days, agitating occasionally during this time, 
then strain through two or three thicknesses 
of very fine muslin before using. 

It must be remembered that picric acid is an 
etching ingredient, which is another way for 
saying that it will destroy the cylinder walls. 

The explosive force of picric acid is very 
much overrated. If thrown upon a red hot 
plate of iron, it simply burns with a. smoky 
flame, and striking a small quantity of it upon 
an iron anvil will not explode it. 

Polarity. To ascertain the polarity of the 
terminals of a storage battery or light circuit, 
place the ends of the wires on the opposite ends 
of a small piece of moistened litmus paper. The 


504 


The Automobile Handbook 


wire on the side of the paper which has turned 
red is the negative pole of the battery. 

Porcelain. Porcelain tubes used for the in¬ 
sulation of the center rod of a spark plug have 
higher insulative properties than lava or mica, 
but on account of the liability of the porcelain 
to break from too sudden change of tempera¬ 
ture, it is not as reliable as other forms of in¬ 
sulating material. 

Pounding Causes of. The most obvious 
cause of pounding is that of a spark advanced 
foo far. This, however, nearly always occurs 
upon hills, in deep sand or mud, or elsewhere, 
whenever the engine is laboring very hard. In 
the case of too far advanced spark, manipula¬ 
tion of the spark would only make the pound 
worse than ever. So, too, if the spark was nor¬ 
mally set too far advanced, it would pound 
more at high speeds than at slow, just the re¬ 
verse of the actual case. 

Preignition causes pounding, and is itself 
caused by overheated piston or cylinder walls. 
Olowing points or deposits of carbon within 
the cylinder, as well as faulty or uncertain igni¬ 
tion also cause it. Leaks in the chamber are 
sometimes the cause of pounding, so too, are 
looseness of parts. Among the latter may be 
cited: connecting rod bearings, main bearings, 
loose flywheel, cracked flywheel, other lost mo¬ 
tion. Beyond these things, the only other cause 
of pounding is that of some moving^part which 
strikes as it rotates. 


The Automobile Handbook 


505 


Preignition —Causes of. If tlie inside sur¬ 
faces of the combustion chamber are free from 
sharp corners or projections formed in casting, 
preignition is probably due to the combined in¬ 
fluences of high compression, and carbon or dirt 
on the piston head. Next to the exhaust valve 
itself the piston head is the hottest part of the 
engine, since it cannot be water cooled. For 
this reason it is much more important to keep 
the piston head clean than the other surfaces 
exposed to flame, and this is best accomplished, 
first, by the use of a good non-carbonizing oil, 
and,’ second, by thoroughly screening the air 
intake. If preignition is troublesome it will 
pay to fit a dust screen underneath the engine 
in case none is already provided, since what¬ 
ever dust touches the piston head will be held 
there by the oil, and will be fully as effective in 
causing preignition as the same amount of 
carbon. The intake itself should draw air 
through at least one, and preferably two or 
more fine wire gauze screens of sufficiently large 
area to permit the ‘air to pass through them 
slowly. These screens should be removable, and 
should be inspected, and cleaned with gasoline 
and a toothbrush as often as may be necessary. 
It will be found that the fitting of a suitable 
dust screen beneath will make an immense dif¬ 
ference in the amount of cleaning, which t le 
gauze screens require. In the manufacture o 
hio-h classed motor cars the greatest care is 
taken in scraping the walls and dome of the cyl- 



506 


The Automobile Handbook 

inder castings forming the combustion space, 
the aim being to remove every projection that 
might cause a pre-ignition point as also to re¬ 
move every burr, or rough spot to which for¬ 
eign matter would adhere. The lubrication 
system of a car is a most important factor in the 
elimination of preignition due to the proper 
amount of oil being fed to the cylinders. 

When a back kick occurs and the crank-shaft 
rotates in the reverse direction, that rotation 
must first be stopped and a rotation started in 
the correct direction. To stop the back kick or 
reverse rotation requires power, and to again 
start the correct rotation calls for power. The 
forces that stop the back kick are, the arm of 
the person cranking the weight of the rotating 
flywheel, and forcing one of the other pistons 
to compress the mixture. The force that starts 
the flywheel in the correct direction is the ex- 
P odmg charge of gas in cylinder No. 2 as 
illustrated in Fig. 242, in which the piston in 
o. 1 cylinder has not reached the top dead 
center on the compression stroke when the 
spark occurs and the reverse movement of the 
crankshaft starts. In tracing out what happens 
the valve locations must be considered. Both 
valves intake and exhaust—in No. 1 cylinder 
are closed on the compression stroke and they 
will remain closed on the back kick stroke. 
Had the motor been running, No. 2 cylinder 
would have been going down on the explosion 


Fig. 242 

Diagram Illustrating Theory of Back Firing 


The Automobile Handbook 507 











































































































508 


The Automobile Handbook 


stroke of the piston, but as there was no previ¬ 
ous explosion, the motor having been idle, the 
cylinder would be filled with mixture, with 
both valves closed, as they always are on the 
explosion stroke. The piston in this cylinder 
was normally going down; but, as soon as the 
back-fire occurred, the piston would start up 
and the valves remaining closed, the mixture 
would be compressed. This pressure would help 
to stop the back kick, and as soon as the power 
of back-kick was over the compression would 
start the piston down on the proper explosion 
stroke, which would prove of sufficient power 
to carry the motor past the firing point in the 
other cylinders. Cylinders 3 and 4 would not 
be factors at all, in that the piston in No. 3 
would, when the back-kick occurred, be near 
the bottom or end of the suction stroke with the 
intake valve open, and when the reverse action 
of the piston set in it would start rising, simply 
driving the mixture out through the open intake 
valve and through the carbureter. Cylinder No. 
4 was near the completion of the exhaust stroke 
when the back-fire started, and the exhaust 
valve was open. During the reverse motion 
caused by the back fire, the piston would start 
descending, the exhaust valve remaining open, 
exhaust gases would be drawn into the cylinder 
from the exhaust pipe. 

Other causes of back firing are, 

(1) A weak mixture. Bearing in mind that 
the mixture is the fuel of the engine, and that 


The Automobile Handbook 


509 


as in a stove, the character of the fuel influences 
its manner of burning, it will be evident that 
like poor wood, slaty coal, or other imperfect 
fuel, a weak mixture is a slow burner. This is 
point number one. Proportionate to the speed 
at which it is running, the motor has a certain 
sharply defined period of time in which it must 
complete each part of its cycle, if it is to operate 
satisfactorily. Should the parts of the cycle 
lap, or run over into one another, there is bound 
to be a hitch of some kind. The use of a very 
weak mixture causes just such a hitch by rea¬ 
son of the fact that it continues burning for 
some time after the completion of the part of 
the cycle during which it is supposed to func¬ 
tion, i. e., the power stroke. In fact, it is still 
burning when the inlet valve opens to take m 
a fresh charge, and as its burning in the cylin¬ 
der maintains considerable pressure therein, the 
latter, on the lift of the inlet valve, escapes 
through it and the carbureter with a pop r 
exactly similar to that of an unmuffled exhaust 
except that it is weaker. The remedy is more 
gas or less air, or sometimes both, and to find 
out just how much of each is required, start 
the motor and very gradually cut down its 
gasoline supply at the needle valve of the car¬ 
bureter until the motor begins to miss. Then as 
slowly increase the supply until the motor will 
run steadilv and without missing on the mini¬ 
mum opening of the needle valve. Lock the 
latter in place. Then speed the motor up by 



510 


The Automobile Handbook 


opening the throttle and adjust the spring of 
the auxiliary intake on the carbureter until the 
motor is receiving sufficient air to enable it to 
run and develop plenty of power at all speeds. 

(2) An overheated combustion chamber, 
due to a poor circulation of the cooling water- 
causing self-ignition of the charge before the 
proper time. 

(3) Advancing the ignition point too far 
ahead when the motor is running slowly under 
a heavy load—flywheel has not sufficient mo¬ 
mentum to force the piston over the dead cen¬ 
ter, against the pressure of the already ignited 
and expanding gases. 

(4) The presence of a deposit of carbon 
(soot) or a small projecting surface in the com¬ 
bustion chamber which may become incandes¬ 
cent and cause premature ignition. 


The Automobile Handbook 


511 


Repair Work. In assembling the car the 
engine had best be pnt together first. When 
putting the pistons in their respective cylinders 
see that the splits or joints in the piston rings 
are not in line, but are spaced evenly around 
the piston. See that all parts are thoroughly 
clean and that no grit, or stray strands of waste 
happen to be caught on any projection. All 
nuts and bolts should be screwed tight and the 
jaws of the wrench should be properly adjusted 
to them, that the corners of the nuts and cap 
screws may not be rounded off. Insert the cot¬ 
ter pin after each nut has been screwed home. 
In joints where packing is required the old 
packing may be used if it is in good shape. 
Joint faces should, of course, be perfectly clean. 
A stout grade of manila wrapping paper soaked 
in linseed oil will make an excellent packing for 
crankcase and other joints having a good con¬ 
tact surface. 

While the engine is being reassembled it will 
be found advantageous to check up the valve 
timing. To do this, turn the fly-wheel until 
the inlet valve plunger of No. 1 cylinder just 
touches the lower end of its valve stem. At this 
point the line on the fly-wheel indicating Inlet 
No. 1 Open” should coincide with the pointer 
on the engine base. If the contact between the 
valve stem and the plunger is made before the 
mark on the fly-wheel lines up with the pointer, 
the valve opens too early. In most cars the 
adjustments may be made by the screw cap and 


512 


The Automobile Handbook 


lock-nut on the plunger. As the valve stems are 
lowered by repeated grindings of the valves, 
the plungers require adjustment occasionally 
to compensate for this movement. Insert a 
piece of paper between plunger and valve stem, 
and by lightly pulling on the paper the time of 
contact and the moment of release may be de¬ 
termined to a nicety. When the paper is held 
tightly, a good contact is assured, and the mo¬ 
ment the paper becomes loose and can be moved 
about, the contact is broken. In many cars the 
reference or index mark on the engine bed is 
omitted; in this case the markings on the fly¬ 
wheel must be brought directly to the top. The 
other inlets and the exhaust valves should then 
be similarly checked up and adjusted. 

Most♦ cars base the valve setting on a 1-32 
inch clearance space between valve stem and 
plunger rod when the valve is closed. This 
may be taken as the minimum amount, and 
should not be increased. A larger amount of 
clearance will cause the exhaust valve to open 
too late, and, the exploded gases not being en¬ 
tirely expelled, the power of the motor will be 
impaired/ This clearance is necessary to allow 
for the expansion of the valve stem when it be¬ 
comes heated. 

. To ° mueh stress cannot be laid on the neces¬ 
sity of going about the work in an orderly and 
methodical manner. A mechanic who leaves 
parts lying about carelessly will rarely be found 
a good one, and certainly he is not a proper 


The Automobile Handbook 


513 


model to copy. With care, the amateur owner 
should have no trouble in overhauling, thus bet¬ 
tering the condition of his car and acquiring a 
valuable stock of knowledge. 

• Automobile Tools. In Fig. 243 three types 
of valve lifters are shown. B and C are of the 
same principle, and quite efficient in almost any 
case; but A, when properly operated, and on 
its respective motor, is more quickly applied, 



and consequently a time saver. D is a valve- 
seating tool, supplied as special equipment by 
one of the large motor car manufacturers. 

In Fig. 244 are shown a couple of spanner 
wrenches and one or two other tools that are 
quite uncommon but quite necessary in the work 
to which they are adapted. A is made from a 
piece of steel tubing and used on packing 
glands—the tube to slip over the shaft—and the 
small lugs at the end engage corresponding 
























514 


The Automobile Uandboolc 


recesses in a packing nut. B is representative 
of a valve-grinder, designed especially for the 
valves in certain motors. The spanner C is re¬ 
quired to conveniently remove certain types of 
cylinder plugs; while D, which approaches the 
conventional, is used in adjusting bearings of 
a particular type. 

There is probably a greater variety of wheel 
and gear pullers now in service than of any 



other special tool. In Fig. 245, .A looks verv 
much like the standard adjustable wheel and 
geai puller for sale in all supply houses; and 
it practically is the same except that the hooks 
aie larger and twisted in opposite directions 
and at right angles to the beam. It is found 
useful in removing road and flywheels and the 
like. B is a non-adjustable tool made especially 
for removing flywheels. C and P are road wheel 
pullers, and are included in the regular equip- 







The Automobile Handbook 515 

ment of tools supplied with the cars of two 
prominent manufacturers. C is part of the 
Rambler tool equipment and is used in connec¬ 
tion with their spare wheel; and P represents 
the type of wheel puller supplied by the Pierce- 
Arrow. E is a gear-puller designed to remove 
the half-time-gears of an Oldsmobile, the two 



side-screws being intended to fit into threaded 
holes in the web of the gears. 


Removing Dents. An easy method of remov¬ 
ing dents consists of soldering a piece of wire 
to the bottom of the dent, then pulling the de- 






























The Automobile JIandbooTc 

pressed portion out to its proper position. When 
the dent happens to be in an oil, or gasoline 
tank, or a radiator, an old valve can be most 

effectively used in place of the wire, as shown 
in Fig. 246. 



_ . Fi g. 246 

Removing Dent in Gasoline Tank 


Tools Necessary. The following tools should 
be m the car when on the road: 

Monkey wrench, 9 inch. 

Machinist’s screwdriver. 

Ball pene hammer, one pound. 

Combination pliers, 8 inch. 

Set of double end, or “S” wrenches. 

Flat file, mill cut. 


v 























The Automobile Handbook 


517 


Three cornered file. 

Round file, six inch. 

Center punch. 

Prick punch. 

Drift punch, flat ended. 

Offset, or “bent-end” screwdriver. 
Cold chisel, three-quarter inch. 
Spark plug wrench. 

Small wire cutting pliers. 

Emery cloth. 

Cotter pin puller. 

Wire brush for spark plugs. 



Fig. 247 

Pouring Parson’s Metal 


Shop Kinks. To reline a journal box with 
Parson’s white brass, proceed as follows: Pre¬ 
pare a reasonably smooth cast iron plate A, Fig. 
247, which is bored to receive a vertical man¬ 
drel B about 3/16 inch smaller in diameter than 
the finishing bore of the box. An annular brass 
ring C, about % inch wine, and whose m- 












518 


The Automobile Handbook 


side diameter is about % incli smaller than 
the outside diameter of the end flange D 
of the box to be lined, is then located on 
the iron plate concentrically with the man¬ 
drel, and secured by means of pins or other¬ 
wise. This ring serves as a support for the 
box itself, and in the process of pouring, the 
space between the ring and mandrel is filled 
with white brass which is afterward turned off. 
Any imperfect metal which may be poured will 



Fig. 248 

find its way either into this space or into the 
space above the box, leaving the lining of the 
box itself perfectly sound. The box itself is . 
assumed to have been suitably counterbored 
and recessed to hold the lining as shown in the 
sketches E and F, Fig. 248. It is preferable to 
use the arrangement shown at F and allow the 
lining to extend beyond the ends of the box, and* 
form the outer surface of the flanges. In this ' 
vase the diameter of the flange formed by the 
lining will be the inside diameter of the sup- 

















The Automobile Handbook 


519 




porting ring, which will be slightly smaller than 
the diameter of the flange of the box itself. 

The halves of the box—if it is split—are 
wired together and the box and the mandrel are 
heated by torches and assembled as shown in 
the sketch. A second ring—not shown—simi¬ 
lar to the supporting ring is placed on the top 
of the box, and all the cracks are luted with 
moist fire clay. Meanwhile, the white brass 
has been melted in a kettle to a fairly high 
heat somewhat higher than the pouring temper¬ 
ature. While it is being melted, it is kept cov¬ 
ered by about 1 inch of powdered charcoal, 
which excludes the air. When the maximum 
temperature is reached, the charcoal is quickly 
skimmed off and a handful or tw T o of powdered 
salammoniac is thrown on. The salammoniac 
is immediately volatilized and forms a heavy, 
though colorless gas which shuts off the air 
from the surface of the metal and causes it to 
stay bright. The pouring is then done with all 
possible haste, and on cooling the metal will be 
found perfectly homogeneous and solid. If the 
box is split the lining can be condensed by pen- 
ing. If the box is solid, the lining is simply 
bored to the proper size. 

To Restore a Sagged Frame. A frame which 
is sagged to the extent of permanent deforma¬ 
tion can be restored so as to approximate its 
original shape, by heating it in a charcoal fire 
wfith an air blast. To do this properly, it will 
most likely be necessary to cut out the rivets. 




520 


The Automobile Handbook 


so that the side members can be handled inde¬ 
pendently. A good plan of procedure is to in¬ 
close the bent portion of the frame in a section 
of stovepipe of sufficient size in which the char¬ 
coal fire is built. A length of 1-inch gas pipe, 
closed at one end, and having 5/16-inch holes, 
drilled at intervals of about 6 inches, is laid in 
the bottom of the pipe and furnishes the air 
supply from a bellows. When the charcoal fire 
is well kindled, the frame is introduced upside 
down, and is supported at the ends. The fire is 
then concentrated on the bent portion, and as 
the frame becomes hot it will straighten itself. 
It must be watched carefully and the air blast 
stopped as soon as the frame is seen to be 
straight. Most of the frames used in American 
cars are ordinary carbon steel, and require no 
special treatment. It will be well, however, on 
stopping the air blast to shift the stove pipe to 
a cooler portion of the frame, to permit the 
part which has been straightened to cool as 
quickly as exposure to the air will permit. A 
frame which has been sagged and straightened 
m this manner will require to be trussed to pre¬ 
vent recurrence of the trouble. As conditions 
vary so much the best rule to follow is to ob¬ 
serve the truss arrangement on some similar 
car. The struts should be about 4 or 5 inches 
long, afid should be located at the spots where 
the sagging has occurred. The truss rod itself 
should be about % inch in diameter, and drawn 
taut by a turnbuckle, which may be finally 


The Autornobile Handbook 


521 


tightened when the chassis has been assembled. 

Spanish Windlass. The old fashioned Span¬ 
ish windlass, in Fig. 249, may be occasionally 
employed where no other hoist is available. It 
is extremely handy in setting, and lining up 
motors, transmissions and rear axles. It con¬ 
sists of a round bar or piece of pipe, a piece of 
rope, and a lever such as a small crowbar or 



jack-handle; all of which are quite common to 
the ordinary repair shop. The round bar is 
laid across the side members of the frame, the 
rope is made fast to the object to be hoisted, a 
loop of it is wound around the bar as shown, 
and the lever inserted in the end of the loop. 
Although this is as old as the hills, it is not un¬ 
common to see a man lying on his back, in a 













522 


The Automobile Handbook 


most uncomfortable position, holding a heavy 
transmission case up into place while another is 
trying to locate the bolt holes, and adjust the 
liners; whereas, if this makeshift windlass were 
employed, one man could raise and set the gear¬ 
box with much less trouble. 

Straightening Spindles. In Fig. 250 a tool 
is shown which is used in a local repair shop, 
for straightening spindles. The tool, which is 
of heavy construction, is placed in a vise; the 



spindle is heated to a red heat, the ends cooled 
off with water, and placed between the centers, 
as illustrated. A lever is then placed between 
the bent portion of the spindle and the shank 
of the tool, so that when pressure is brought to 
bear on it, the spindle arm may be brought 
back into its normal position. 

Cleaning Aluminum. Aluminum, such as 
used for foot-boards of cars, may be cleaned by 
using hyposulphate of soda, as this substance is 
a solvent of aluminum tarnish. The dirty sur- 









Fig. 251 |fl|||VkUu» 


The Automobile Handbook 


523 


































































524 


The Automobile Handbook 


face should be washed with a strong solution 
of the hyposulphate; then rinse the surface with 
water and dry. 

Care of Tire Pump Leather. The proper 
lubricant for the cupped leather washer of the 
tire pump piston is yaseline. Oil is too thin 
and it tends to work into the rubber hose, and 
even into the tire itself if too much is used. Vas¬ 
eline, on the other hand, clings to the leather 
and lasts a considerable time. If the leather 
becomes dry it does not hold air well, and pump¬ 
ing to high pressure becomes impossible, while 
the labor of pumping even to low pressure is 
greatly increased. 

Replacing Broken Ball. When replacing a 
broken ball in a ball bearing it is better to re¬ 
new the whole set, unless the new ball can be 
carefully gauged to be of the same size as the 
others. If this is not attended to, the new ball, 
having to bear more than its share of the 
weight, quickly succumbs. The greatest care 
should be taken, of course, to use grease free 
from grit, and to clean the balls and bearings 
before they are replaced. 

Cleaning Tops. Tops may be cleaned by us¬ 
ing gasoline, a little ivory soap and a brush. 
Sometimes, however, when cleaning with gaso¬ 
line the water-proofing quality of the materials 
may be destroyed. This can be restored by an 
application of paraffine. Dissolve the paraffine 
with gasoline and apply with a clean brush, the 
gasoline will carry the paraffine into the fabric 


The Automobile Handbook 525 

and will evaporate, leaving the paraffine in the 
fabric. 

Useful Hints. At A, Fig. 251, is shown a 
simple tool found to be universally useful for 
wedging off magneto driving pinions, and other 
small members fitted to coned shaft ends, with 
or without key retention. This can be easily 
made from a large file, or any piece of steel of 
sufficient dimensions, depending upon the work 
to which it would be applied. The opening in 
the fork need not be more than three-quarters 
inch for the average magneto, the tines about 
two inches long, and three-eighths inch wide and 
taper from nothing to about one-quarter inch 
at the thickest part. Two of these are needed 
and-are placed hack of the gear, the tapered 
portion of one piece resting on that of the 
other, as shown. To remove the gear the ends 
are driven in toward the centre at the same 
time. This exerts a lifting effort, due to the 
wedge action of the tools immediately back of 
the pinion. The advantage of this method is 
that the shaft on which the gear is mounted is 
not subjected to any side strains, such as would 
result if attempts were made to drive off the 
gear by holding an S wrench back of the gear 
and driving against it with a hammer. "When 
removing worn sprockets from the counter 
shaft in order to replace them with new ones, 
trouble may be experienced in loosening the 
nut especially if the rear wheels have been re¬ 
moved. In such cases the chain may be utilized 



526 


The Automobile Handbook 


to hold the sprocket in the manner shown at 
B, Fig. 251, by anchoring it to the axle with 
an S hook made of three-eighths inch cold rolled 
steel rod The sprocket will be firmly held and 
the nut removed without difficulty. 

Although some grades of rubber hose are bet¬ 
ter than others, unless properly cared for even 
the best will deteriorate rapidly. Among the 
factors which make for rapid wear are careless 
stowage and abuse. The hose is left on the 
wash stand,, cars are run over it, and when it 
has served its purpose, it is thrown in a heap 
and oil and grease accumulations soon work 
havoc with the rubber walls. A good rule to 
follow is to have a place for everything and 
everything in its place. It is not unusual to 
see a coil of hose carefully hung upon a nail 
as . shown at C, each coil having a sharp 

J^nk” ln 2t ’ h( Ah top and bottom, as indicated. 

I his sharp bend tends to break the fabric walls 
and the hose soon leaks. The proper way of 
angmg a hose is to use five or six wooden pegs 
arranged around an arc of a circle, as shown 
Under these conditions the coils take a grad¬ 
ual curve, and do not assume a sharp angle as 
when but a. single point of support is utilized, 
the hose is one of some length a reel should 


. ° ften ^ len bushings and parts, and 

m general operations , where reamers are used 
s ound that the tool will be just a trifle 
undersize, or that it is desirable to have the 


The Automobile Handbook 


527 


reamed hole just a little oversize. In such cases 
a simple expedient, as shown at D, Fig 251, will 
be found valuable. A small sheet of brass, or 
zinc is rolled in such a manner that it will fit 
between two of the cutting edges of the reamer. 
If the reamer is inserted with the roll of metal 
in place it will be evident that the reamer will 
be forced a trifle from the centre of the bore 
and the cutting edges of the reamer opposite 
the inserted metal roll w T ill remove the metal. 
Very fine cuts should be taken, and the metal 
roll placed between different cutting teeth each 
time that the tool is used. In tapping out nuts 
it is often desirable to have the thread a little 
deeper than the standard, or to have the nut a 
loose fit on the bolt, as is sometimes necsesary 
when trying to place a machine screw nut on a 
carriage bolt. In this case a similar roll of 
metal may be placed between the cutting edges 
of the tap, as shown at E, Fig. 251. 

Solder. Silver solders are generally used for 
very fine work. They are very fusible, and 
non-corrosive. Hard spelter is used for steel 
and iron work, and soft spelter for brass work. 

When copper is soldered to iron or zinc, resin 
should be used, or if chloride of zinc is used for 
a flux, the joint should be washed afterwards 
to remove the acid. Un-annealed wires should 
be soldered at as low a temperature as possible. 
Solder is always an alloy of other metals. It 
must not only be more fusible than the metal, or 
metals to be joined, but it must have some chem- 



528 


The Automobile Handbook 


ical affinity for them. Different kinds of solder 
are therefore employed for different purposes. 
It is called either hard or soft, according to its 
fusing point. 

Solders and spelters for use with different 

metals, and their proportional parts by weight 
are 

Solder for: 

Electrician s use—1—Tin, 1—Lead. 

Gold—24—Gold, 2—Silver, 1—Copper. 
Patinum—1—Copper, 3—Silver. 

Plumber’s—Hard— 1— Lead, 2—Tin Soft— 
3— Lead, 1—Tin. 

Silver Hard—1—Copper, 4—Silver. Soft— 
1—Brass, 2—Silver. 

Tin Hard—2—Tin, 1—Lead. Soft—1—Tin, 

1—Lead. 

Spelter for: 

Pine brass work—8—Copper, 8—Zinc, 1_. 

Silver. 

Common brass— 1—Copper, 1—Zinc. 

Cast iron—4—Copper, 3—Zinc. 

Steel 3 Copper, 1—Zinc. 

Wrought iron—2—Copper, 1—Zinc. 

Fluxes for Soldering. Some good fluxes for 
soldering purposes are: 


Iron or steel. . . 
Tinned iron . . 
Copper to iron 
Iron to zinc . . 
Galvanized iron 
Copper or brass 

Lead . 

Block tin ....*. 


Borax or sal-ammoniac. 

Resin or chloride of zinc 
Resin. 

Chloride of zinc.* 

Mutton tallow or resin. 
Sal-ammoniac or chloride of zinc. 
Mutton tallow. 

Resin or sweet oil. 


* Chloride of zinc is simply 
(muriatic) acid, until the acid 


zinc dissolved in 
is cut or killed. 


hydrochloric 











The Automobile Handbook 


529 


Scratched Cylinder. The cylinder may be 
temporarily fixed by taking it to a first-class 
tinsmith and having the scratches filled with sil¬ 
ver solder. The soldered places must be then 
carefully scraped flush with the bore of the cyl¬ 
inder. The best way is to have the cylinder re¬ 
bored and the piston-rings re-turned. 

If the scratches are not too deep the cylinder 
can be rebored, and a new set of piston-rings 
made to fit the new bore. The limit to such an 
increase in bore is about one-sixteenth of an 
inch. 

If the damage to the cylinder walls has been 
comparatively slight, due to the conditions 
being recognized early, the engine should be 
disassembled and the surfaces thoroughly 
cleaned of any dirt or carbon. After reassem¬ 
bling, the full amount of lubricating oil should 
be put into the engine, and with the oil should 
be mixed an amount of graphite, in either the 
amphorous or flake form, proportioned to the 
kind being used and the body of the oil. Con¬ 
tinued use of graphite will tend to fill the 
small scratches in the metal. 

Garage—Cleaning Floors. A hot saturated 
solution of common washing soda will do very 
well. This can be made up in quantities and 
stored against future use. If this method is 
used, be sure to reheat it before using, the boil¬ 
ing point being about right. Since that will be 
too hot to apply with the hands, use any old 
broom or brush to “slosh” it around on the 



530 


The Automobile Handbook 


floor. An equally good, if not better, solution to 
use for this purpose is trisulphate of sodium, 
marketed by several chemical companies, and 
sold at from four to five cents per pound at re¬ 
tail. This can be used cold and will not injure 
the most delicate hands; on the other hand, it 
will clean them very thoroughly, so that users 
of this solution use it for the hands as well as 
for the floors. This is strong, however, and 
may be used to remove paint. 

Protection From Fire. The recommenda¬ 
tions of the National Fire Protection Associa¬ 
tion pertaining to garages and their operation 
are as follows: No dynamo or gas engine should 
be permitted where gasoline is stored or han¬ 
dled ; all exposed lights should be eliminated; 
cleaning of acetylene lamps and removal or re¬ 
newing of carbide should be carried on outside 
of garage; the residue of acetylene lamps 
should never be cast on the floor; machines 
should have oil tanks emptied before being put 
in the repair shop; the use of extension electric 
wires is condemned, as they may cause fire; mo¬ 
tor testing should be done outside, for sparks 
might ignite the fumes of gasoline; storage 
tanks should be filled from outside of garage; 
all volatile oils should be stored in good, heavy 
tanks under ground, as far away from the 
building as possible; pipes for filling storage 
tanks should not pass through the garage in 
any way; a filling station should be twenty to 
thirty feet from the entrance to the garage, and 


The Automobile Handbook 


531 


tanks of .cars filled from there if it is necessary 
to fill them when the cars are inside of the gar¬ 
age ; furthermore, the station should be fir e- 
proof, and all cars should be brought to this 
point for filling; smoking and carrying of 
matches, or use thereof should be strictly pro¬ 
hibited; floors should be kept free of oil drip¬ 
pings, and pails of sand should be kept handy 

in proximity to gasoline. 

A garage of ordinary size should he equipped 
with at least four or five chemical fire extin¬ 
guishers, and these should be placed so that 
they may be quickly reached by any one in case 
of emergency. The stream from such an extin¬ 
guisher will smother a fire before it has done 
much damage if the flame can be reached within 
a minute or so of the time when it started. 
The chemicals usually used will not harm the 
finish of the car if the surfaces exposed are 
immediately washed in the usual way. Slight 
marring is of course preferable to destruction. 

Rheostat. A rheostat is a device for regulat¬ 
ing the flow of current in a closed electrical 
circuit, by introducing a series of graduated 

resistances into the circuit. 

Running Gear. A complete running gear in¬ 
cludes the frame, springs, wheels, motor, speed- 
change-gear, axles and the machinery of the 
car except the body. The French word, chassis, 
is sometimes used to designate a running gear, 

Secondary Current. The current which takes 
its rise in the fine wire of the induction coil, and 


532 


The Automobile Handbook 

which flows through the wire to the spark plug, 
is induced in the fine wire by the sudden rever¬ 
sal of the magnetism of the iron core. 

This change of magnetism is caused by the 
sudden interruption of the primary current. 

Self-firing, Causes of. If the motor should 
continue. to run after the switch has been 
opened, it is due to an insufficient supply of 
lubricating oil, causing the motor to overheat, 
or to the presence of soot or some projection in 
the combustion chamber becoming incandes¬ 
cent. It may also be due to lack of water or 
to the water circulation working poorly, caus¬ 
ing the motor to overheat. 

Snaft Drive. The principal advantages which 
may be advanced for the shaft drive are, absence 
of noise, convenience with which all the parts 
may be housed in oil and protection from 
dust. It is especially adapted for use upon cars 
carrying their engines in front, with the crank¬ 
shafts parallel with the length of the car, as the 
direction of the power shaft does not have to 
be changed until the rear axle is reached, and 
as the power must also pass through one set of 
bevel gears, it is more efficient. 

The principal disadvantages of the shaft 
drive are that it is difficult to repair; it is some¬ 
what more complicated; it has considerable 

end-thrust and it is claimed that it is harder on 
the tires. 

1 The SUrfaces t0 be j oin ed should 

be fitted to each other as accurately as possible 


The Automobile Handbook 


533 


and then thoroughly cleaned with a file, emery 
cloth or wire brush. The work should then be 
heated as hot as possible without danger of melt¬ 
ing, as this heating causes the solder to flow and 
secure a good hold on the surfaces. It is im¬ 
portant that the soldering iron be kept well 
heated during the work, otherwise the solder 
will only stick and will not join the surfaces. 

The end of the soldering copper should be 
well tinned by first cleaning it with a file or 
emery cloth while hot, then dipping into flux 
and rubbing the tip on a bar of solder until a 
space extending one-half inch back is covered 
with clean bright solder. The tinned end should 
not be placed directly in the heating flame. 

Sweating is a form of soldering in which the 
surfaces to be joined are first covered with a 
thin layer of solder. These surfaces are then 
placed in contact and heated to a point at which 
the solder melts and joins. Sweating makes a 
stronger joint than ordinary soldering. 

Spark Plugs. The trouble with motors mis¬ 
firing, is generally due to dirty spark plugs. 
This is caused by using too much cylinder oil, 
which, when subjected to the intense heat in the 
cylinder, turns to carbon. This carbon depos¬ 
its on the insulated porcelain and the body, of 
the' plug, and instead of the current jumping 
from the point in the body to the point in the 
porcelain and making a spark, it follows the 
easiest path, which is the carbon, and does not 
make a spark at the plug points at all. When 




\ 


534 


The Automobile Handbook 


this occurs the motor will misfire. The first thing 
to do when a motor misfires is to test the spark 
plug, turn the motor until the battery circuit 
is closed. Unscrew the spark plug from the mo¬ 
tor, then reconnect the wire to it just the same 
as it was before. Lay the metal part of the 
plug body on the flywheel or some other un- 



A—Platinum point. 

B—Thread. 

C—Plug body. 

D—Bushing. 

E—Insulated terminal. 


Fig. 252 

F—Porcelain bushing. 
G—Expansion spring. 
H—Asbestos washer. 
J—Lock nuts. 

K—Assembly nut. 


painted part of the motor, being careful that 
the metal part of the plug body only touches 
the motor and that the porcelain part is clear. 
If the spark jumps in short jerks between the 
inner end of the porcelain and the interior of 
the plug body it is sooted, and needs cleaning. 























The Automobile Handbook 


535 


If it jumps at the points as it should do, the 
trouble is elsewhere; probably at the battery, 
loose connecting wires, or the vibrator of the 
coil is not properly adjusted. 



SPARK PLUGS 


Fig. 253 

To clean a spark plug properly use a 50 per 
cent solution of hydrochloric (muriatic) acid r 
washing the points of the plug with a tooth 
brush, occasionally dipping the plug into the 



SPARK PLUG 


Fig. 254 

acid. After cleaning the spark plug in this 

manner, rinse it in water. 

Spark Plugs— Construction of. Two spark 
plugs are shown in Figure 252, which, while dif¬ 
fering radically in their construction, effect the 










































536 


The Automobile Handbook 


same purpose, that of producing a spark or arc 
in the combustion chamber of the motor. The 
accompanying table and reference to Figure 
252, will fully explain the construction of the 
spark plugs. 

Ci oss-sections of four different forms of 
spark plugs are shown in Figure 253. All are 
constructed with a view to make the outside or 
•extraneous path caused by sooting, as long as 



SPARK PLUG 


Fig. 255 

possible, so as to prevent if possible short-cir¬ 
cuiting of the plug from this cause. 

Figure 254 shows a form of spark plug in 
which two extra air-spaces are provided, one 
between the center rod or terminal and the 
porcelain bushing and the other between the 

porcelain bushing and the shell or body of the 
plug. 

The spark plug shown in Figure 255 has a 
closed chamber around, and over the center in¬ 
sulated rod or terminal; this chamber is a part 




































































The Automobile Handbook 


537 


of the body of the plug and forms the other ter- 
minal of the plug. It acts as a small combus¬ 
tion chamber, and streams of fire are supposed 
to be thrown from the small openings in the 
chamber, when the arc or spark occurs therein. 


fEXg ACROSS FLATS 



|uSS FORM OF THREAD 
-PITCH DIAM.— 1 
.639 MAX. 

.636 MIN. 
♦OUTSIDE DIAMrJ 
.675 MAX. 

.672 MIN. 

SMALL HEX. 


\ | MINIMUM/ 
TO) BEVEL 


U55 FORMOF THREAD 
•PITCH DIAM.- 
.839 MAX. 

.836 MIN. 
♦OUTSIDE DIAM.-*’i 
675 MAX. 

.872 MIN. 

large hex 


all DIMENSIONS BELOW SHOULDER ARE 
IDENTICAL FOR BOTH SPARH BLU6 SHELLS 

Fig. 256 

S. A. E. Standard Spark Plug 


Spark plugs of American manufacture are 
made with three different sizes of threads: One- 
half inch pipe-size, the actual outside diameter 
of which is .84 of an inch, with 14 threads Der 





















































































538 The Automobile Handbook 

inch Seven-eighths of an inch diameter, with 

. 1I"' 1 ' nc ^'> ail| I -7 of an inch diameter, 
with 17 threads per inch. The last named fine 
IS the French, or Metric standard thread 

Specific Gravity. In the absence of a proper 

instrument, the specific gravity of gasoline or 

any other liquid may be obtained as follows: 

Weigh a certain quantity of distilled water 

at 4 degrees Centigrade, or 39 1/3 degrees Pah- 
renheit. 

Weigh the same quantity of gasoline or other 
liquid under test. 

Divide the weight of the liquid by the weight 
of the water, and this will gi ve the required 
specific gravity of the liquid. 

The specific gravities of various liquids are 
as follows : 

Alcohol at 15° c. n7qd 

Acid, nitric .;. 

Acid, sulphuric . . 

Ether at 15° C . 1.841 

Naptha 0.720 

Oil, linseed .* ’ *. 0-£48 

Petroleum .... . 0.94 

Gasoline at 15° C. a‘™£ 

Water, sea, at 4°° -6S0 to f^O ^ 
Water, pure, at 4°.l'o 

. The specific gravity of the electrolyte used 
m s orage batteries is usually close to 1250 
under ordinary conditions. This figure will 

r h !,”/ l m ■» • Mir 

as /So g ,f ng battery ’ and may fall as low . 
badly 100 Wlth a battery -' that aeeds charging 

The specific gravity of a storage battery 
should be tested while the battery is being 












The Automobile Handbook _ 539- 

charged or immediately after the charge has 
been discontinued, never just after water has 
been added. 

To test the gravity, it is necessary to use a 
hydrometer made and graduated for this wor , 
the instrument being preferably enclosed in a 
tube fitted with a bulb and nozzle and called a 
hydrometer syringe. With the filling caps re¬ 
moved from each cell of the battery, t le u 
compressed, the nozzle inserted into the cel an 
enough liquid drawn up to float the hy rom- 
eter The marking on the hydrometer s em 
at which the surface of the liquid remains is- 

the specific gravity of that cell. e y 

should be nearly the same in all cells with a 
good battery. The liquid should he returned 
to the cell from which it was drawn. 

Springs. The length and number of leaves 
in the springs of motor cars of similar weigh 
and power vary, and without any reason for so 
doing The general use of pneumatic tires hides 
ZZ' imperfections in this respect as well as 
in others Springs of insufficient strength^ 
a source of great danger, an re ' l ”“‘ r 
nation should he given to them. Spri 
not necessarily of insufficient strength becau 
they appear to be light. Short springs are not 
desirable, as they are more liable to break than 
a longer spring, the deflection per u 
length being greater. Stiffness in short spring 
is usually avoided by lightness, which is like y 
to lead to breakage, especially when the. ho 


540 


The Automobile Handbook 



Fig. 257 

Full Elliptic Spring, Scroll Ends 



Fig. 258 

Semi or Half-Elliptic Spring 



Fig. 2 59 

Three Quarter Elliptic Spring 



Fixed Cantilever Spring 



^ Fig. 2 61 

Three Quarter Floating Cantilever Spri 

















The Automobile Handbook 


541 


for the bolt through the center of the spring is 
made larger than necessary. 

Springs—Dimensions of. In calculating the 
dimensions and elastic limit of springs for mo¬ 
tor-car use, the elastic limit must be carefully 
considered with regard to the dead, and maxi¬ 
mum loads to be carried by the car. The dead 
load is the weight of the car when at rest. The 
maximum load is the greatest weight that can 
possibly be carried with good spring action. 
The springs to retain their elasticity should 
have their ultimate strength far beyond their 

maximum load capacity. 

The old practice of fixing a uniform curva¬ 
ture of the spring leaves frequently leads to 
breakages due to distortions set up at the 
spring perch. This tendency is now aborted by 
making the spring leaves in such a way that the 
curvature begins at points beyond the spring 
perch, so that the clamps when they are pulled 
into tight relation do not straighten out the 
plates. ^ It is still the custom to use a leather 
pad on which to rest the springs, because 
thereby the coefficient of friction becomes that 
of leather, and creeping tendencies are as a con¬ 
sequence remote. There is also the question of 
the camber given to the respective spring plates. 
If the plates are all of the same thickness, they 
should all be curved to the same radius, for 
then the extreme fiber strain would be equal in 
all the plates for every alteration in camber in- 


542 


The Automobile Handbook 


eiclental to the service they are placed to per¬ 
form. 

Springs—Testing and Material. The life of 
a spring is forecast by the maker thereof, al¬ 
most independently of the quality of the mate¬ 
rial. If the spring is limber, and it is so placed 
as to indicate spring play, just at the point of 
reversals of camber, the life will be shortened. 
The superior grades of materials will stand this 
abuse for a comparatively long time, but the 
dynamic life of steel, like the life of every other 
animated thing, is limited. Inferior materials, 
advantageously situated, might last far longer 
than the superior products working at a disad- 
vantage. The initial camber to give a spring, 

for a given static camber, is a problem for the 
springmaker. 

Fig. 262 shows three views of a given spring, 
under the conditions as follows: The spring 
under static load, indicating the static cam¬ 
ber; straightened out under load; in reverse 
camber, in a testing machine, to the limit before 
permanent set. 

. Tt 1S worth while to study these three condi¬ 
tions m relation to springs, because they have 
to do with the life of the spring in service, and 
the easy riding qualities of the car due to spring 
action. It might be said in general that the 
greater the difference between the initial and 
the static camber, the more pronounced will be 
the easy riding qualities, and it might be said 
as wel1 that the greater the initial camber, and 



The Automobile Handbook 


543 


the greater the possible reverse camber, the bet¬ 
ter will be the life of the springs, especially if 
we take into account that the spring action in 
service will be limited between the two points, 
as represented by the initial camber on the one 
hand and the condition, which means that the 
spring leaves will no more than straighten out 
in actual service. If the service conditions are 
such as to eliminate any reversal of camber, 



Fig. 262 


then it may be said the factor of safety will be 
represented by the amount of the reverse cam¬ 
ber in a testing machine before permanent set. 

Springs—Care of. Springs should be exam¬ 
ined occasionally, and while often overlooked* 
this seemingly trifling matter has a direct bear¬ 
ing upon the smooth, easy running of the car. 
Owing to the fact that the springs are exposed 
to the weather, rust is very likely to occur at 














544 


The Automobile Handbook 


this point, and to this unsuspected corrosion is 
often due the occasional “squeak.” Although 
many cars are provided with some means for 
Rubricating the friction surfaces, many cars are 
not so well provided for and when rust makes 
its appearance along the joints* there is a cry¬ 
ing need for oil. This may be conveniently 
applied by placing the jack between spring and 
frame, and slightly opening the leaves or plates. 
The toggles and links should also have a little 
oil occasionally and when about this work it is 
well to examine the nuts of the clips. These 
nuts are prone to work loose. 


TABLE 13 


SPRING WIDTH, EYE AND CLIP DIAMETER 


(S. A. E. Pleasure Car Standard) 


Car Weight Spring Load per 

Spring 

1,800 to 2,600 Front 500- 700 
Rear 600- 750 
2,600 to 3,200 Front 600- 800 
Rear 700- 900 
3,200 to 4,000 Front 750-1,000 
Rear 850-1,100 
Over 4,000 Front Over 1,000 

Rear Over 1,100 


Spring 

Eye 

Clip 

Width 

Diam. 

Diam. 

1 % 

% 

1/2 

1 % 

% 

1/2 

2 

% 

9/16 

2 

% 

9/16 

2% 

% 

5/8 

2% 

% 

5/8 

2y 2 

% 

3/4 

2Vo 

% 

3/4 


Car weights are for cars empty, while loads pe 

spring are for total loads of cars with passenger am 
equipment. 


Where rear springs take the drive or both 
drive and torque, y 8 inch is added to the diam¬ 
eter of the eye at the driving end. Where rear 


The Automobile Handbook 


545 


springs take the drive, the drive and torque or 
are underslung, 1/16 inch is added to the clip 

diameter. ^ \ 

In Figure 263 are shown a number of forms 
for the leaf points used on springs. The five 
in the upper row and the two at the left of the 
lower row are the types most used. Reading 




from left to right in the upper row, the points 
are named as follows: oval, round point, short 
French point, round end slot and bead, and 
ribbed. In the lower row, from left to right 
the names are: square point tapered, diamond 
point, egg shape and bevel, blunt end slot and 

bead, and French point. 























546 


The Automobile Handbook 


Starting and Lighting Systems. 

Four principal types of engine starters have 
been used; the air starter, the mechanical 
starter, the acetylene starter and the electric 
starter. Beginning with the production of 1916 
cars, the electric starter is the only one found 
as standard equipment. 

Acetylene starters were used by many cars 
in 1913. This form admits acetylene gas from 
the lighting tank to the cylinder that is ready 
to fire through a distributor valve. The passage 
of an ignition spark caused by operating a but¬ 
ton on the dash fires the gas and the force of 
the explosion starts the engine. 

Mechanical starters are found in many forms. 
They consist of a mechanism through which the 
driver is enabled to turn the engine crankshaft 
through connections that lead to a handle or 
lever that may be reached from the seat. 

Compressed Air Starters. In a typical air- 
pressure system the motor is operated with 
compressed air until regular explosions take 
place in the cylinders; the air supply is then 
shut off and the motor takes up its regular 
operations. 

The parts of this self-starter are as follows 
(see Fig. 264) : 1, a high-pressure, four-cylin¬ 
der air pump, for compressing air in a storage 
tank; 2, a pipe for carrying air from pump to 
storage tank; 3, a pipe which carries air from 


The Automobile Handbook 


547 





' 

« jr 
2 O 

■ 2it 

■ "$ w : 

% ** «> 
v « 3 


f iidfc WWtf .. - - ■» «*' 


r 


c” 
►* > 

2 a: 

ss 
£ 2 


Fig. 264—Chalmers Air Pressure Starting Mechanism. 



































548 The Automobile Handbook 

tank to push valve on the dash; 4, a pipe which 
carries compressed air from the push valve to 
the ‘‘distributor’j 5, pipes through which air 
is carried from the distributor to the various 
cylinders; 6, poppet valves—one in each of the 
cylinders—by means of which compressed air 
from the distributor is admitted to the cylinder 
ready for the working stroke; 7, a pressure 
gauge on the dash, which keeps the operator 
informed of the amount of compressed air in 
the storage tank; and 8, a pump clutch, oper¬ 
ated by a foot pedal, which throws the gears 
of the air pump into mesh. 

The air pump in this system is driven by a 
silent drive chain from the water pump shaft, 
and operates only when the gears are thrown 
into mesh by pressing the pump clutch foot 
pedal. It is a simple device for compressing 
the air and delivers a steady flow to the storage 
tank. A pressure of 50 lbs. in the tank will 
start the motor under ordinary conditions, but 
it is advisable to keep the pressure at about 
150 lbs. 

The storage tank is carried beneath the body 
of the car and is tested for a pressure of 600 
lbs. to the square inch. 

The dash push valve opens the air line from 
the storage tank to the distributor and simul¬ 
taneously opens the cylinder valves so that air 
coming from the distributor through the pipes 
shown in Fig. 264 has ready access to the cyl¬ 
inders. When the foot is removed from the 


The Automobile Handbook 


549 


dash button, both the escapement valve and 
the cylinder valves are closed automatically 
and the compressed-air starter is shut off from 
the motor. 

The distributor sends charges of compressed 
air into the cylinders ready for the working 
stroke, in their order of firing. It is geared 
to the pump and magneto shaft and positively 

timed for feeding air. 

This type of self-starter is also used for the 
purpose of inflating tires by means of a special 

shut-off valve and hose. 

The principle of compressed-air starters is to 

admit air under 50 to 150 lbs. pressure from a 
generous reservoir directly to the motor cylin¬ 
ders at the beginning of each expansion stroke. 
This operates the motor without affecting the 
mixture in the cylinders. When running under 
air pressure the admission of the compressed 
air at almost the moment of the spark operates 
the same as an ignition, causing a rise of pies 
sure in the cylinder. After it has performed 
its work this pressure is released by the ex¬ 
haust valve in the same manner as the burne 
gases are released when the motor is running 

under its own power. 





550 


The Automobile Handbook 


Allis-Chalmers Equipment, The most com¬ 
monly used type of Allis-Chalmers equipment 
makes use of a combined motor-dynamo, Fig. 



Fig. 265 

Allis-Chalmers Motor-Dynamo. 
F, Brush Holder. G, Brush 
Brush Connection. 


E, Commutator. 
Connection. H, 


265, operating at six volts pressure for starting 
charging and lighting. In addition to the motor- 
dynamo, the system includes the battery, a start- 










The Automobile Handbook 


551 


ing switch and a separately mounted combined 
cut-out and regulator. 

Pushing the starting switch connects the bat¬ 
tery with the motor-dynamo, which then oper¬ 
ates as a motor to crank the engine to which it 
is mechanically connected. The switch is then 
released after the engine fires. The motor- 
dynamo speeds up with the engine and, when 
it reaches a certain predetermined speed, is auto¬ 
matically connected to the battery and the light¬ 
ing system by means of the cut-out. If the 
lights are burning, part of the current is used 
in lighting, the surplus going to charge the 
battery. When the engine slows down below the 
charging speed, the cut-out opens the circuit be¬ 
tween the generator and battery. 

By removing the cover band, the commutator 
may be examined. "When in good condition it 
win show a glaze and will be dark brown in 
color. If the commutator appears dirty or 
greasy it should be wiped off with a clean cloth 
free from lint, slightly moistened with oil. 

Do not disturb the brushes so long as the 
motor-generator appears to be operating prop¬ 
erly. They should make good contact with the 
commutator and slide smoothly in the brush 
holders. 

The purpose of the combined cut-out and reg¬ 
ulator is to connect the generator to the battery 
when its voltage equals that of the battery, and 
to maintain a practically constant charging cur¬ 
rent with the widely varying speeds of the en- 






552 The Automobile Handbook 

gine. It also disconnects the battery when the 
motor-generator voltage falls below that of the 
battery, preventing the battery from discharg¬ 
ing. 

The regulator-cutout consists of a compound 
wound electromagnet with two armatures, one 
of which serves as the cut-out while the other 
regulates the charging current. The shunt reg¬ 
ulator winding is always connected across the 
generator terminals. When the generator volt¬ 
age is sufficient for charging, the electromagnet 
attracts the armature, closing the circuit through 
the series coil of the regulator of the battery. 
The current flowing in the series coil then as¬ 
sists the shunt coil to hold the contacts to¬ 
gether. With an increase in generator speed, 
the charging current will increase, strengthen¬ 
ing the regulator electromagnet. At a certain 
critical point the second armature will vibrate, 
alternately cutting a resistance in and out of 
the generator field circuit, which will reduce 
the charging current by lowering the generated 
voltage. When the generator speed, and conse¬ 
quently the voltage, drops below charging value 
the reverse battery current flowing in the series 
winding neutralizes the shunt winding, releas¬ 
ing the armature and thus opening the circuit 
before the battery can discharge. 

The internal connections and mechanism of 
the regulator-cutout are shown in the diagram, 
Fig. 266. 

The regulator is provided with a fuse to pro- 


Fig. 266 

Allis-Chalmers Motor-Dynamo Internal Connections 


The Automobile Handbook 


553 
































































































554 The Automobile Handbook 

tect the system from excessive charging current, 
or an improper discharge through the starter, 
in case the regulator should not function prop¬ 
erly. This fuse has a capacity of 45 amperes 
and carries the shunt field current as well as 
the battery charging current. The fuse, which 
is made of an especially hard alloy to withstand 
the high temperature near the engine, should 
always be replaced by one of the same make. 
If several fuses are blown within a short time, 
the regulator is probably out of order and; 
should be replaced. This fuse does not protect 
the lighting and horn circuits. 

To prove whether the motor-dynamo is charg¬ 
ing the battery or not, remove the wire from 
the “BAT.+ ” terminal of the regulator and 
insert an ammeter between this terminal and 
the wire, with the positive terminal of the meter 
connected to the terminal of the regulator. With 
the engine running at about 60 revolutions per 
minute or higher, the meter should show a charg¬ 
ing current of 10 to 18 amperes. If the meter 
shows no current, the motor-dynamo is either 
not developing any voltage or there is an open 
circuit in the charging line. To determine 
whether the motor-dynamo is developing any volt¬ 
age, open the circuit at ammeter and then 
remove the wire from the “F L D” terminal 
of the regulator. With the engine still running 
as above, there should be quite a flash on re¬ 
moving the wire from the “F L D” terminal of 
the regulator. All these tests are to be made 


The Automobile Handbook 555 

'with a good fuse in place on the regulator. If 
no flash is obtained on removing the wire from 
the ‘ 4 F L D ’ ’ terminal, hold the wire on the fuse 
clip for a few seconds and note whether there 
is a flash on removing it. A flash here and none 
from the “F L D” terminal indicates a fault in 
the regulator. No flash from the fuse clip indi¬ 
cates a fault in the motor-generator. It is as¬ 
sumed here that the connections between the 
regulator and the motor-dynamo have been ex¬ 
amined and found correct and sound. 

If the motor-dynamo develops its voltage but 
still does not charge the battery, the fault is 
either in the regulator or the auxiliary contact 
of the starting switch. This can be located by 
connecting up the ammeter again as before, and 
with the engine still running hold a wire pumper 
in the hands and first connect the “DYN-^-’ , 
terminal of the regulator to the “BAT-}-” ter¬ 
minal. If the battery now charges, the fault is 
in the regulator. If no result is obtained, con¬ 
nect “BAT+” terminal of the regulator to the 
positive terminal of the battery. The charging 
of the battery now would indicate that the fault 
was in the starting switch. 

The motor-dvnamo should not be run with the 
charging circuit open, except for a minute or 
two at a time in making tests and not at all at 
very high speeds, as it would damage both the 
motor-dynamo and the regulator, and also the 
lights if turned on. If it is necessary to operate 
the car with the battery removed or with the 




556 


The Automobile Handbook 


battery circuit open in any way, so that it can¬ 
not charge, the fuse must be removed from its 
place on the regulator. 

Auto-Lite Equipment. These systems con¬ 
sist of separate unit dynamos and starting 
motors operating with a six-volt pressure in all 



Fig. 267 

Auto-Lite Dynamo With Permanent Field Magnets* 
and Clutch Governor 

cases. The first models were of the permanent 
magnet type, that is to say, the dynamo field 
consisted of six powerful steel magnets without 
the usual coils, Fig. 267. These magnets were 
of the inverted U, or horseshoe, type, and under¬ 
neath the arch thus formed was mounted an 
electromagnetic cut-out which closes the charg¬ 
ing circuit whenever the dynamo voltage is suffi- 












The Automobile Handbook 


557 


ciently high to charge the battery. This part of 
the mechanism may be exposed by removing the 
brush wires and taking out the plate that car¬ 
ries the positive and negative dynamo terminals. 

This permanent magnet dynamo is driven 
from the engine by silent chain, but between 
the chain sprocket and the dynamo armature 
shaft is a -form of slipping clutch governor con¬ 
tained in the drum seen at the left hand end of 
Fig. 267. The shell of this drum has its driving 
connection to the shaft by means of two shoes 
that are pressed outward by springs. Two 
weights are carried at or near the ends of corre¬ 
sponding arms inside of the drum, and when 
the armature shaft has reached a certain pre¬ 
determined speed the centrifugal action of the 
weights overcomes the tension of the springs and 
the shoes release their hold on the shell. By 
thus preventing an armature speed above the 
desired maximum, the voltage and output of 
the dynamo is held at a point suitable for bat¬ 
tery charging. 

A later form of Auto-Lite dynamo is shown 
in Fig. 268. This model retains the inverted U 
form of field magnet cores, but around the top 
of the magnet arch is placed a field coil housing 
and in this housing is a shunt and a reversed 
series field winding. The shunt field winding 
is attached between the brushes in the usual 
way, and the entire dynamo output passes out 
through, the reversed series winding. This 
series winding being placed in such a way that 




558 The Automobile Handbook 

it opposes the action of the shunt, dynamo out¬ 
put above a certain point is made to overcome 
the field magnetism to such an extent that the 
amperage shows no further rise. The two 
dynamo terminals are seen on the front of the 
field housing and with this machine the electro¬ 
magnetic cut-out is separately mounted, usually 
on the dash of the car. 



Fig. 268 

Auto-Lite Dynamo With Electromagnetic Fields 

A third type of Auto-Lite dynamo is shown in 
Fig. 269. This machine is fully enclosed and 
has its fields placed above and below the arma¬ 
ture. The field windings and regulation of out¬ 
put by means of the reversed series coil is the 







✓ 


The Automobile Handbook 


559 


same as in the type just described. The brushes 
and commutator may be exposed by removing 
the plate A. 

Bijur Equipment. These systems are made 
in three distinct forms, two being six-volt sepa¬ 
rate unit dynamo and starting motor types, 
while the third is a combined motor-dynamo op¬ 
erating at twelve volts for both charging and 
starting. 



Auto-Lite Fully Enclosed Dynamo. 

One of the six-volt systems makes use of a 
straight shunt-wound dynamo having a com¬ 
bined regulator and cut-out mounted in an 
aluminum housing on top of the dynamo case. 
Connected in series with the shunt winding is a 
coil of high resistance wire which is automatic¬ 
ally inserted in the shunt field circuit by the 
regulator, this action keeping the voltage con¬ 
stant. The regulator consists of an electro¬ 
magnet with its winding shunted across the 




































560 The Automobile Handbook 

brushes, so that current always flows around 
the magnet when the dynamo runs, also the 
regulator contacts which are connected to carry 
the shunt field current around the resistance 
coil when they are closed. As the dynamo volt¬ 
age rises, the magnet pulls the armature against 
the small spring and opens the contacts. The 
shunt field current then flows through the re¬ 
sistance and is so reduced that the field strength 
and voltage immediately fall. The low voltage 
reduces the strength of the electromagnet and 
the spring again closes the contacts, allowing the 
field current to avoid the resistance coil and 
raise the voltage. The regulator contacts vibrate 
this way at the rate of about 100 times a second 
and this holds the voltage at a point determined 
by the strength of the regulator spring or its 
tension. 

The cut-out is electromagnetic with two wind¬ 
ings and is carried in the same case with the 
regulator, this case being on top of the dynamo. 
All connections between dynamo, regulator and 
cut-out are made between the regulator housing 
and dynamo case and are not exposed. Two 
wires only come from the dynamo, one positive 
and one negative. 

The dynamo wires end in a brass plug on one 
end of the regulator case. This plug may be 
rotated in its socket so that it makes part of a 
turn one way or the other. Turning this plug 
as far toward the engine as it will go makes one 
wire positive and the other negative, and turn- 


The Automobile Handbook 


561 


ing it as far from the engine as it will go re¬ 
verses this polarity. This reversal should be 
made every 500 miles, being sure that the plug 
is turned as far as it will go so that it locks in 
place. This action reverses the polarity of the 
dynamo and prevents pitting of the contacts. 



Bijur Wiring Diagram for Voltage Control System 

After adjustments are made the regulator box 
is sealed at the factory and the maker’s instruc¬ 
tions say not to open it. The entire box may 
be removed from the dynamo by unscrewing the 
small milled nut on top, the connections between 
the cases being made with split pins. Lights 
and starter will run from the battery while the 
regulator is returned to the makers for repairs. 
A complete wiring diagram for this form of 
Bijur apparatus is shown in Fig. 270. 

























































' uaHTina srrrrcn 


562 The Automobile Handbook 

In Fig. 2/1 is shown the application of an¬ 
other form of six-volt separate unit system. 



This dynamo has no controller box as has the 
one just described, but the shunt field winding 



























































































The Automobile Handbook 


563 


is connected to an additional brush bearing on 
the dynamo commutator. This brush is for the 
purpose of limiting the dynamo amperage and 
is so placed in relation to the main brushes that 
the current passing into it, and thereby into the 
shunt field, diminishes with increase of speed. 
The normal tendency of the output to increase 
with the speed of rotation is therefore counter¬ 
acted and a safe maximum is maintained. This 
is the form of regulation known as “third 

brush. ’ ’ 

The electromagnetic cut-out for this system 
is mounted inside of the brush and commutator 
end of the dynamo case. This end of the ma¬ 
chine is closed by a removable brass band, and 
through the openings left with this band re¬ 
moved the working parts of the machine may be 
inspected. Mounted on the outside of the dy¬ 
namo case, and connected in series with the field 
windings, is a small fuse which will blow out 
whenever the current passing through the fields 
becomes excessive. This fuse will protect the 
dynamo in case of a broken circuit between 
dynamo and battery or lamp lines. 

Separate starting motors of Bijur make may 
drive to the engine through an overrunning 
clutch, through direct acting spur gears or by 
means of a Bendix screw. With the Bendix 
screw a single contact starting switch is used 
which sends the full battery current to the motor 
when the switch is closed. With the spur gear 
v J rive, the starter switch makes a preliminary 




564 The Automobile Handbook 

contact through a resistance coil and continued 
movement of the switch pedal and plunger 
closes the contacts that short circuit the resist¬ 
ance and send the full battery current through 
the motor. The same operation that meshes the 
starting gears moves the switch plunger. 

Bijur motor-dynamos operate at twelve volts 
and have their output controlled by the “ third 
brush ’ ’ system as explained for the type just 
described. Drive is direct to the engine crank¬ 
shaft through a silent chain. No cut-out is used, 
but w T hen the motor-dynamo is connected to the 
battery by means of the starting switch, the 
switch is allowed to remain closed and the in¬ 
creasing speed of the unit when driven from 
the engine causes the voltage as a dynamo to 
rise to a point that recharges the battery. When 
the car is operated at a speed below about ten 
miles an hour, the dynamo voltage falls below 
that of a battery and the unit again becomes 
a starting motor. A neutral position is pro¬ 
vided on the starting switch for use when the 
car is being driven at low speeds or when the 
engine is idling. With the switch in this posi¬ 
tion the motor-dynamo is disconnected and bat¬ 
tery discharge is prevented. 

Bosch Equipment. The dynamo is shown 
in Fig. 272 and is used in connection with a 
starting motor of the Rushmore type and having 
the Rushmore form of drive to the flywheel. 

The dynamo is a separate unit, shunt wound, 
delivering 12 volts with a maximum output of 


The Automobile Handbook 


565 


8 to 10 amperes at high car speeds with a par¬ 
tially discharged battery. 

A box mounted on the dash carries a volt- 
ammeter, voltage regulator, cut-out, lighting and 
ignition switches and fuses. A small lever is 
moved to cause the meter to show either volts 
or amperes on the same meter. 



Fig. 272 
Bosch Dynamo 


Regulation acts to maintain a steady voltage. 
The regulator consists of a small cylinder of 
carbon particles with one end of the shunt field 
winding connected to one end of the carbon pi e 
and the corresponding dynamo brush connected 
to the other end of the carbon. The shunt field 
current thus passes through the carbon. e 
carbon particles are held tightly compressed by 
a plunger fitting inside the cylinder with a coil 
spring holding the plunger down. Under thi 
condition the resistance of the carbon is very 
low and allows practically the whole of 







566 


The Automobile Handbook 


shunt field current to pass without interruption. 
An electromagnet forms part of the regulator 
and is connected in shunt across the dynamo 
rushes so that its strength increases with the 
rise m voltage. This electromagnet acts to pull 
up. on the plunger against the action of the 
spring, and as the voltage rises the pressure on 
the carbon is lessened in this way and the re¬ 
sistance of the carbon pile increases rapidly as 
the particles are loosened. This resistance in 
the field lowers the voltage and output. 

An electromagnetic cut-out is carried in the 
dash unit housing with the voltage regulator. 
These systems make use of the single wire 
ground return method of wiring. The start¬ 
ing cable is, however, covered with a copper 
sheath that assists in carrying the return cur¬ 
rent to the battery. 

Delco Equipment. A majority of Delco 
applications have been of the motor-dynamo 
ype, this method being departed from for the 
first time on some of the applications made on 
1916 cars. The first Delco system to be used 
consisted of a motor-dynamo that operated as 
a starter at 24 volts and charged to six volts 
for lighting and battery charging. The bat- 
tery for this system consists of twelve cells 
c ivided into four sections of three cells each. 

y means of a two position multiple contact 
knile switch carried in the battery box, these 
sections were placed in series for starting and 
m parallel for lighting and charging. The 


The Automobile Handbook 56 <■ 

complete charging circuit diagram is shown in 
Fig. 273. 

The battery charge is controlled by a form 
of wattmeter, called an ampere-hour meter. 
Current flowing into the battery causes this 
meter to revolve in one direction and current 



flowing out of the battery causes it to revolve 
in the opposite direction. After a certain flow 
has entered the battery, the meter has moved to 
such a' position that a resistance is inserted m 
the shunt field winding of the dynamo and the 
rate of charge is thereby reduced. Further 




























































































568 The Automobile Handbook 








































































































































































The Automobile Handbook 


569 


movement of the meter in the same direction 
opens the shunt field current and further bat¬ 
tery charge is prevented. Withdrawal of cur¬ 
rent causes the meter to reverse this movement 
and the field circuit is first closed through the 
resistance and the resistance is then cut out 
entirely, allowing a resumption of full battery 

char £ 36 . 

Fig. 274 show's the complete circuit diagram 
for this system. The magnetic latch is for the 
purpose of allowing the driver to close the start¬ 
ing switch and mesh the motor gears with the 
flywheel when the clutch pedal is depressed. By 
means of a small push button, usually on tie 
heel board, the latch magnet is energized and 
the latch itself connects the starting gearing 
with the clutch pedal. Depression of the 
pedal then causes starting action as described. 
The application of this system on a car, with 
external wiring shown, is seen m Fig. 275. 

A form of Delco motor-dynamo having two 
separate commutators and two sets of brushes 
is shown in Fig. 276. One of these commuta¬ 
tors is for the dynamo generating action, wh 

the other is for starting. 

When the unit is generating current for 
charging tile battery, for lights and igm_ lon > 
it is a simple shunt wound generator. It is 
driven from the engine by an extension of the 
pump shaft. The generator is driven at one 
and one-half crankshaft speed, and m order 
to compensate for the higher ratio when 




570 


The Automobile Handbook 



Fig. 275 

Complete Car Wiring for Delco 6-24 Volt System 



































































































































































































The Automobile Handbook 


571 



Delco Motor-Dynamo With Starter Switch Mounted 
Above Flywheel Drive Gearing. A, Oil Hole 
B Oil Hole. C, Grease Cup. D, Gear Shitt 
Yoke. E, Switch Operating Rod. F, Switch 
Soring. G, Flywheel Gear. H, Motor Pinion 
Gear. I, Clutch Shaft. J, Shift Yoke Rod. K, 
Tripping Collar. L, Contact Block Latch. M„ 

Contact Block. 





























































































































572 


The Automobile Handbook 



Pig. 277 

Delco “Junior” Motor-Dynamo 










































































The Automobile Handbook 


573 


unit is in starting relation to the engine, a sec¬ 
ond one-way clutch is provided adjacent to the 
forward housing. This clutch permits the ai ma¬ 
ture to run ahead of the driving shaft during 

the cranking operation. . 

Fig. 277 illustrates the Delco Junior ” 

motor-dynamo and the starting switch is shown 



in Fie. 278. These units cannot well be shown 
in their actual locations and are therefore shown 
separate. Referring to Figs. 277 and 278 the 
yoke H fits into the collar I which is pinned t 
the rod D. The movement of the rod from th 
starter pedal operates the gearing and the 

starting switch. 




















574 


The Automobile Handbook 


When the starting pedal is pushed down it 
pulls back the rod D and closes the contact E 
which completes the circuit between the battery 
and dynamo armature. The closing of the cir¬ 
cuit causes the armature to revolve slowly so 
that the gear J will mesh with the motor pinion 
as it slides along on its shaft. As the starting 
pedal is pushed further down it continues to 
pu 1 the rod D, which opens the contact F 
breaking the circuit between the battery and 
dynamo armature. This action of the rod at 
the same time causes the motor brush switch to 
rop onto the motor commutator, and the train 
o gears to slide on its shaft until in mesh with 
the motor pinion and the teeth on the flywheel. 

The motor brush dropping on the commuta¬ 
tor causes the circuit to be closed between the 
storage battery and the motor armature, which 
causes the motor to crank over the engine. 

When the starting lever is released the motor 
switch brush is raised from the motor commu¬ 
tator and the train of gears is thrown out of 

mes , when the contacts F will automatically 
close. J 


„, n f the , SP6ed ° f the motor generator is above 
revolutions per minute, the cut-out relay 

lg. 279, will close the circuit between the stor¬ 
age battery and motor generator, thus permit- 
mg the generator to charge the storage bat- 

,, ery ' orn t,le of tIle motor generator is less 
than 350 revolutions per minute, the cut-out 

relay will remain open and all current for 


rr rr ^ 

5 < o 


The Automobile Handbook 


ignition and lights, if they are in use, will come 
from the storage battery. 

Oil is conveyed to the ball bearings through 
oil cup B and the small hole A in the front end 
cover. This hole is made accessible by remov¬ 
ing the upper front end cover. At the time 4 
or 5 drops of light oil are put in the oil cup 
B and the hole A, the grease cup C should be 



Fig. 279 

Delco Reverse Current Cut-out 


given 1 or 2 turns or replenished if empty. 

The cut-out relay, Fig. 279, is located in the 
rear end housing of the generator. This instru¬ 
ment closes the circuit between the generator 

































576 The Automobile Handbook 

and the storage battery when the generator 
voltage is high enough to charge the storage 
battery. It also opens the circuit as the gener¬ 
ator slows down and its voltage becomes less 
than that of the storage battery, thus prevent¬ 
ing the battery from discharging back through 
the generator. The cut-out relay is an electro¬ 
magnet with a compound winding. The voltage 
coil or fine wire winding is connected directly 
across the terminals of the generator. The cur¬ 
rent coil, or coarse wire winding, is in series 
with the circuit between the generator and the 
storage battery, and the circuit is opened and 
closed at the contacts A. When the engine is 
started, the generator voltage builds up and 
when it reaches about six volts a current pass¬ 
ing through the voltage winding produces 
enough magnetism to overcome the tension of 
the spring B, attracting the magnet armature 
C to core D, which closes the contacts A. These 
contacts close the circuit between the generator 
and storage battery. The current flowing 
through the coarse wire winding increases the 
pull on the armature and gives a good contact 
of low resistance at the contact points. 

Delco systems used during 1915 consist of sin¬ 
gle armature motor-dynamos, one application of 
which is shown in Fig. 280. The armature car¬ 
ries two commutators, one on each end or both 
on the front end, the rear end commutator be¬ 
ing for the starting motor action. 

Two separate field coils are used; a shunt for 


The Automobile Handbook 


577 


















































578 The Automobile Handbook 

the dynamo action and a series for the starting 
motor action. These coils are both on the same 
field magnet core and have separate terminals. 

The drive as a dynamo is from the rear ex¬ 
tension of the pump shaft through a roller over¬ 
running clutch which releases when the arma¬ 
ture turns at high speed as a starting motor. 

The starting motor drive is through a pinion 
on the rear end of the armature shaft to a ring 
gear on the flywheel. Two gears, fastened to¬ 
gether, are free to rotate as a pair on an auxil¬ 
iary shaft, the gears being slid along this shaft 
by a yoke connected to the starting pedal until 
one is in mesh with the armature shaft pinion 
and the other with the flywheel gear, complet¬ 
ing the drive connection. A roller clutch is in¬ 
corporated in the front one of the pair of slid¬ 
ing gears, this clutch releasing while the arma¬ 
ture is being driven as a dynamo. 

Starting switch action is secured by normally 
holding one of the motor commutator brushes 
away from the commutator by means of a rod 
connected to the starting lever or pedal. When 
the lever or pedal is moved this rod is drawn 
back so that the brush drops onto the commu¬ 
tator under the action of its spring, completing 
the circuit from the battery through the series 
winding and armature. This rod is fastened to 
the sliding gears so that they must be in mesh 
before the brush can drop. 

The dynamo brush that is grounded com¬ 
pletes its connection to ground through a pair 


The Automobile Handbook 


579 


of contacts, one stationary and one movable, 
Fig. 281. The movable contact is attached to 
an arm on the movable starter brush in such a 



way that the contacts open as the starter brush 
drops onto the commutator. This prevents 
dynamo action while the armature is acting to 
start the engine. 

































580 The Automobile Handbook 

No fuses are used, but there is a magnetic 
circuit breaker, the electromagnet of which acts 
to open the contacts from the battery and dy- 



Governor and Overrunning Clutch Mechanism of 
Delco Motor-Dynamo x 

namo to the lamp and car wiring when 25 am¬ 
peres flow. After the circuit breaker opens the 
contacts continue to vibrate open and closed if 





















































The Automobile Handbook 


* 581 


there is a flow amounting to five amperes. The 
circuit breaker will not stay closed until the 
ground or short circuit that is causing the leak 
of current has been removed. The spring of 
this current breaker should not be adjusted in 


any way as it is a safety device. 

Delco systems may have any one of three dif¬ 
ferent systems for regulating the dynamo out¬ 
put. One type consists of a differential or buck¬ 
ing coil carried on the field magnets and con¬ 
nected in series with the main line from the 
dynamo brush to the dash switch unit. 

Another method makes use of a coil of resist¬ 
ance wire carried on a spool in the front end of 
the dynamo case on the right hand side, Fig. 
282. One end of the shunt field winding is 
grounded through this resistance coil so that 
the field current would have to pass through 
the coil. This high resistance would allow but 
little flow and would weaken the field to such 
a point that the output would be very low. 
When the dynamo is running at low speeds tie 
field current, after passing to the lower end of 
the resistance coil, goes to the ground through 
an arm making contact with the coil. Tins arm 
carries a contact which slides up and down on 
the resistance coil, the arm being moved by a 
centrifugal governor attached to the igni ion 
distributer shaft. As the dynamo speed in¬ 
creases, the governor weights cause the movabe 
arm to raise so that its contact is farther from 
the bottom of the resistance coil, and the field 




r;co 

OOlu 


The Automobile Handbook 


current must consequently flow through a great¬ 
er length of resistance wire before reaching the 
contact on the arm and passing to the ground. 
This greater resistance in the shunt field circuit 
allows less current to flow and by thus weak¬ 
ening the field cuts down the dynamo output 
at high speeds. 

The third system of regulation also causes 
the shunt field current to pass to the ground 
through a coil of resistance wire. This resist¬ 
ance coil is wound on a spool and the spool is 
carried at one end of a rod, the other end of the 
rod forming the plunger of a solenoid coil. The 
strength of this solenoid increases with the volt¬ 
age, being connected in shunt with the brushes. 
Increased strength of the solenoid pulls the 
plunger farther into the coil. This solenoid coil 
is in the upper end of a cylindrical housing, 
and the resistance coil is carried below the sole¬ 
noid. The plunger and resistance are normally 
in a low position but are raised by the solenoid 
action. In the low position the resistance coil 
dips into a well partly full of mercury so that 
the shunt field current does not have to pass 
through all the resistance wire but passes into 
the mercury and to the ground from a contact 
fastened to the mercury well. As the voltage 
lises the solenoid becomes stronger, lifting the 
plunger and pulling the resistance coil up out 
of the mercury well so that the shunt field cur¬ 
rent must flow through a greater length of re¬ 
sistance wire before reaching the ground. This 


The Automobile Handbook 


583 


added resistance allows less current to flow 
through the shunt field and consequently lowers 
the field strength and the output of the dynamo. 

Delco systems use either of two methods of 
reverse current cut-out. One type comprises 
a dash switch with five buttons. The three left- 
hand buttons are for the lights, the two right- 
hand being for the ignition. The button on the 
extreme right is for the storage battery ignition, 
the one next to it being for the dry cells.. Each 
of these buttons carries two contacts inside the 
switch, one completing the ignition circuit and 
the other completing the charging circuit. 
When the engine is to be started either of the 
ignition switches is pulled out. The current 
then passes from the battery to contact (1) cm 
the switch, through the inner connection of 
either dry cell (Bat.) or storage battery (Mag.) 
switch and out of terminal (6) to the shunt 
dynamo winding and armature brushes. This 
causes the dynamo parts to act as a motor of 
very low power and the armature revolves 
slowly so that the starting gears can he meshed. 
As soon as the gears are meshed the motor 
brush drops onto its commutator and completes 
the starting circuit while breaking the dynamo 
circuit as described before. The battery cur¬ 
rent will then cease to flow through termma 
.(6V but will flow through the circuit breaker, 
whose points are held closed by a spring, and 
through the other connection on the switch but¬ 
ton plunger, out through terminal (7) and to 






584 


The Automobile Handbook 


Of 

o 

5 


®or 














































































































































































585 


The Automobile Handbook 


the ignition coil. If the “Bat’ button is pulled 
out the dry cell current comes into terminal 
(2) and out through (7) to the ignition coil. 
When the engine has been started and the dy¬ 
namo generates a voltage greater than the bat¬ 
tery, current will flow from the dynamo through 
the differential winding (if one is used) into 
terminal (6), through the inner contacts of the 
switch and out through (1) to the battery. If 
the ignition switches are left closed with the 
engine idle the battery will discharge through 
the switch contacts and dynamo parts, these 
switches acting as the cut-out with the dynamo 


and engine idle. 

The construction of Delco apparatus used 
during 1916 differs from that already described 
in one important particular. The output of 
the dynamo when charging the battery is con¬ 
trolled by the “third brush” principle 

One of the applications is shown in Fig. 28d 
and it will be noted that the armature and field 
location, starting drive and ignition mechanism 
is similar to the forms previously used, i ie 
brush position is shown in Fig. 284. The action 
is explained as follows: The full voltage is ob¬ 
tained between the large brushes and the vo - 
age between the left hand large brush and the 
small regulating brush is less than the full 
■pressure. This reduced voltage is applied to 
the field coils. With the armature rotating, the 
magnetic field is twisted out of its normal path 
between the pole pieces, the degree of deflection 






586 The Automobile Handbook 

being in direct ratio to the increase of speed. 
This deflection causes the magnetic flow to be- 



Pig. 284 

Brush Mechanism of Delco Motor-Dynamo 


come weaker at the points on the pole pieces 
that affect the flow into the “third brush’’ and 
this weakened field current compensates for 
the higher output that would otherwise be ’* 
caused by increase of speed. Fig. 285 shows 
the starting motor end of this same machine. 
























The Automobile Handbook 


587 


Another application of the third brush dy¬ 
namo does not make use of the motor-dynamo 


TOTERMINAL 

K 'FIG 1 


1 


TO 

GENERATOR 
BfRVSH 



Fig. 285 

Motor Brush Switch Connections of Delco Motor- 

Dynamo 


combination, but uses a separate series wound 
motor driving to the flywheel through a Bendix 

screw. 
































588 


The Automobile Handbook 


Dyneto and Entz Equipment. These in¬ 
stallations make use of a combined motor-dy¬ 
namo operating with twelve volts in some cases 
and with eighteen in others. A compound field 
winding is used, series and shunt coils acting 



Fig. 286 

Five Terminal Dyneto-Entz Motor-Dynamo 


together in starting and forming a reversed 
series controlled machine in generating. The 
reversal of the direction of flow through the 
series field while generating causes this winding 
to oppose the shunt winding at high armature 
speeds and the dynamo output is thereby limit¬ 
ed to a safe maximum. 











The Automobile Handbook 


589 


Dyneto and Entz outfits do not make use of 
a cut-out of the usual form. The motor-dynamo 
is placed in circuit with the battery when the 
starting switch is closed and this switch is left 
closed as long as the machine operates. As 
soon as the unit has started the engine, the 





Fig. 287 

Four Terminal Dyneto Motor-Dynamo 


engine causes the armature speed to increase 
to a point at which the voltage is greater than 
the battery and charging then commences. If, 
at any time, the armature speed falls below a 
certain point the machine again resumes its ac¬ 
tion as a starting motor. 
























590 The Automobile Handbook 

The ignition is controlled by the same switch 
that makes the battery and motor-dynamo cir¬ 
cuit. With this switch in the “Off” position, 
the ignition is inoperative and the battery is 
disconnected from the motor-dynamo. With the 
switch in the “On” or “Running” position, 
the ignition is on and the battery is connected 
to the electric machine. A switch position mid¬ 
way between the two mentioned is provided, 
this position being called “Neutral.” With the 
switch at “Neutral,” the ignition is operative 
but the motor-dynamo circuit is open so that 
the battery will not discharge, and the machine 
will not act as a starting motor at low engine 
speeds. 

The number of terminals differs on various 
types; one with five connections being shown in 
Fig. 286 and another unit with four terminals 
being illustrated in Fig, 287, 



i 




The Automobile Handbook 


591 


Gray & Davis Equipment. The type of equip¬ 
ment used from 1912 to 1914 is described below. 

This system comprises two units: 1, the 

starting motor; 2, the dynamo for charging 



battery and lighting. The function of the dy¬ 
namo is to furnish current for lamps and cur¬ 
rent for the battery. The starting motor starts 
the engine. This motor is connected with the fly¬ 
wheel by gears, and when a starting pedal is 





















592 The Automobile Handbook 

pressed the motor turns the flywheel and crank¬ 
shaft and keeps turning until the engine “picks 
up.” The starting motor then automatically 
ceases to operate. 

The dynamo system includes the following: 

1, a constant-speed dynamo, driven from the 
engine or jackshaft by gear or a silent chain; 

2, a governor, to take care of the varying speed 
of the engine; 3, an electric cut-out, to discon¬ 
nect the dynamo from the battery when run¬ 
ning below the charging speed; 4, a battery to 
operate the lights when the dynamo is not run¬ 
ning at the necessary speed or when the en¬ 
gine is stopped. This battery may also be used 
for firing the engine. 

1. The dynamo is of the compound-wound 
type, designed to run at a constant speed of 
1000 revolutions per minute. The system is so 
wired that the series field is carrying current 
only when the lights are burning. See Fig. 289. 

2. The governor is of the simple, centrifugal 
type, but operates a friction clutch of new de¬ 
sign. In operation the clutch slips just enough 
to hold the dynamo speed always at 1000 
r. p. m., whether the engine speed corresponds 
to a car speed of 13 or of 60 miles an hour. 

3. The electric cut-out consists of an elec¬ 
tro-magnet with a compound winding, the fine 
wire part of which is connected across the dy¬ 
namo terminals. Its function is, as stated, to 
disconnect the dynamo from the battery when 
the engine is running very slowly or is at rest. 


Fi<*. 289—Wiring Diagram G. & D. Dynamo system. 


The Automobile Handbook 


593 


















































































































594 


The Automobile Handbook 


If an automatic switch of this nature were not 
in the circuit the battery would discharge 
through the dynamo when the dynamo was no 
longer maintaining charging voltage. 

4. A battery rated at 6 volts, 80-ampere 


o 

p 


P 

CD 

h 

CO * 
ty O; 

o 


to 

ZD 

O 


3 

t=i 
05 

U 

Vj 
P 
p 

3 P 

o 

a ** 

Pj CD 


Q 


O 

o 

<1 

CD 

P 

O 

i-i 


CD 

O 

P" 

P 

P 
>—• 

3 


Q 


« 

p 

p 


hour capacity at a discharge rate of 8 amperes 
is furnished with this system sufficient to carry 
the full lamp load for ten hours or the side and 
tail lamps for thirty hours. The arrangement 




































































































The Automobile Handbook 


595 


of the switch connections is such that the 
dynamo operates as a shunt-wound machine 
while charging the battery and as compound- 
wound when supplying the lamps directly. 9 his 
gives the battery a tapering charge. 



The wiring for this system is plainly shown 
in the accompanying diagram. See Pig. 289. 
































































596 


The Automobile Handbook 


The newer models of Gray & Davis equip¬ 
ment make use of a separate dynamo or ignition- 
dynamo with a combined output regulator and 
cut-out carried in a housing on top of the unit. 

The interior construction of the dynamo is 
shown in Fig. 291, the particular model illus¬ 
trated being arranged for carrying an ignition, 
head at the drive end and providing a spiral 
gear drive. 

The cut-out and regulator are in the same 
case and the one large electromagnet operates 
both. This magnet carries two windings, shunt 
and series. When the dynamo is idle the cut¬ 
out contacts are open and the two regulator con¬ 
tacts are closed, being held that way by their 
respective springs. Fig. 292. Current enters 
the shunt coil of the controller through the 
grounded end and down through the terminal A 
to the negative brush, thus receiving current 
from between the brushes whenever the dynamo 
runs. When the voltage rises to a point in this 
coil so that the magnet overcomes the tension 
of the cut-out spring the cut-out contacts close. 
Cun ent which has passed from the grounded 
positive brush of the dynamo through the bat¬ 
tery in charging, returns to the terminal B and 
passes through the entire length of the series 
coil on the magnet before going through the 
cut-out contacts to the terminal A and negative 
brush. Current which has passed through the 
lamps returns to the terminal L and through 
only a part of the series coil on the magnet 


The Automobile Handbook 


597 

































































































598 


The Automobile Handbook 

before reaching the negative side. The more 
lamps are turned on the more current they 
take and the less current is left to pass through 
the battery. It will therefore be seen that if 
enough lamps were turned on to- leave nothing 
going through the battery the part of the series 
coil between L and B would carry no current 
and the strength of the magnet would be weak¬ 
ened. For the same reason it will be seen that 
the more lamps turned on the weaker this coil 
and magnet become. This is part of the regu¬ 
lator action as will be explained. 

The regulator action is as follows: Current 
passes from the positive brush through the shunt 
held and into the terminals F and FI, then 
through the regulator contacts which are closed 
and back to the terminal A to the negative 
rush. As the voltage passing through •the 
shunt magnet coil increases after the cut-out 
las closed, its strength finally reaches a point 
where the tension of the regulator contact spring 
is overcome and the contacts are pulled open. 
The current from terminals F and Fl must 
now return to the negative brush through the 
resistance wire coils seen between the two regu¬ 
lator contacts, this resistance retarding the flow 
and weakening the dynamo fields and conse¬ 
quently lowering the output and voltage until 
the weakened magnet allows the regulator con¬ 
tacts to again close. This action causes these 
contacts to vibrate and keep a steady output. 
As explained above, the strength of the magnet 


The Automobile Handbook 


599 


is decreased as more lamps are turned on, so 
that the regulator contacts remain closed for a 
longer time, and, as the resistance is not in the 
field when they are closed, the output is allowed 
to rise to care for the added lamp load. 

The cut-out is of the simple electromagnetic 
type. The action of the regulator allows the bat¬ 
tery to receive a small charge even with all 
lamps on. 

Removable plates cover either side of the dy¬ 
namo, allowing access to the inside without dis¬ 
turbing any parts or wires. 

A charge indicator is located on the dash 01 
cowl. The pointer turns upward if current is 
passing to the battery and downward when cur¬ 
rent passes out of the battery for any purpose. 
If the pointer is straight across the battery is 
neither charging or discharging. This indi¬ 
cator should show charge at car speeds above 

10 to 12 miles per hour. 

The output of the dynamo may be tested by 
turning on all lamps and disconnecting the wire 
from terminal B. .The lamps are then burning 
directly from the dynamo and if they go out the 
dynamo is at fault. 

The regulator and cut-out may be tested, by 
connecting a wire from terminal A to. terminal 
B while the engine runs at a speed which would 
correspond to a car speed greater than 10 miles 
per hour. If the indicator then shows charge 
when it failed to show this before the test, the 
cut-out or regulator is at fault. If the mdi- 


600 The Automobile Handbook 

cator remains straight across something is pre¬ 
senting the dynamo from delivering its cur¬ 
rent. 

The lighting switch is of the rotary snap type 

and carries all lamp and circuit wires on the 

engine side. On the back of the switch are four 

fuses m clips. Near the fuses are letters H S 

R and B, indicating the fuses for head, side’ or 

lmmer, rear and tail, ignition and horn cir- 
cuits respectively. 



Fig. 293 

North East Motor-Dynamo 


The starting motor drives into a flywheel ring 
gear, or crankshaft through sliding reduction 
gearing and overrunning clutch. The starting 
switch pull rod operates the sliding gear through 




















601 


The Automobile Handbook 


a coil spring so that switch contacts may close 
whether gears are in position to mesh or not, 
the first turning of the armature causing the 
gears to snap into mesh under the action of the 
compressed spring. One side of the starting 
switch may he grounded or the lead from the 
positive motor brush may be grounded. In 
either case two wires lead to switch and start¬ 


ing motor. 

North East Equipment. This starting and 
lighting system makes use of a combined motor- 
dynamo having two field windings, a shunt and 
series. The series field is used for starting and 
the two fields compound for generating. One 
of these units is shown in Pig. 293. 

The brushes and commutator may be exposed 
by removing a cover from the end opposite the 
drive. The upper part of this cover, which en¬ 
closes the brushes, is held in place by spring 
clips, but the lower half is fastened with bolts 
that are sealed at the factory. This lower half 
encloses a combined cut-out and regulator, 
cut-out is of the electromagnetic type and serves 
to connect the dynamo with the battery when 
the generating voltage is sufficiently high to 
make charging possible, also to disconnect the 
battery when the dynamo voltage falls belo 

that of the battery. . 

The regulator is of the vibrating ree ype, 

having two sets of contacts operated from one 
electromagnet. The current output of the y- 
uamo passes through the winding of the regu- 


602 


The Automobile Handbook 


lator electromagnet and causes the contact to 
open when the amperage has reached a certain 
predetermined limit. With the contacts open, 
the field current, which has previously passed 
through the contacts, must flow through two 
spools of resistance wire. The consequent re¬ 
duction m field current prevents further rise in 
output. 

North East equipment is of the two volt¬ 
age type, the starting voltage being either 12 
16 or 24, while lighting and charging is ac¬ 
complished at 6, 8 or 12 volts. Starting and 
c ar.gmg circuits are of the two wire type, 
while lighting circuits may be either one wire 
with ground return or two wire throughout. 
A field fuse is carried in the brush and com¬ 
mutator compartment of the motor-dynamo, 
this fuse blowing out should the battery or 
c larging lines become disconnected while the 
motor-dynamo is operating. 

The unit is driven from the engine and 
drives to the engine through a silent chain 
with or without spur gear reduction. 

Eemy Equipment. Remy apparatus con- 
-ts of a variety of types, each one suited to 
the particular requirements of the cars to 
w ich it is applied. A complete internal cir¬ 
cuit diagram of one of the separate unit sys¬ 
tems with separately mounted regulator and 
cut-out is shown in Fig. 295 

Remj equipment may be made up of all 
separate units for lighting, starting and igni- 


The Automobile Handbook 


603 


tion, with or without Remy magneto or battery 
ignition. The separate unit systems all make 
use of a shunt wound dynamo of 6 volt out¬ 
put. The separate motors are of four pole,, 
series wound type and operate on 6 volts. 

A separate dynamo may be driven from a 
shaft to the timing gear case and have one^ of 
the separate motors mounted above it, forming 
a “double deck” instrument. The dynamo 
would be two pole shunt wound and the motor 
four pole series wound, both 6 volts. The 
motor drives down to the main shaft through 
two pair of spur reduction gears, the large gear 
on the main drive shaft carrying an overrun¬ 
ning clutch which runs free while the starting 

motor operates. 

Another Remy system makes use of a motor 
dynamo with only one armature. This machine 
is of the four pole type, compound wound and 
operates with 12 volts. No overrunning clutch 
or device taking its place is used with the sin¬ 
gle armature motor dynamos, these being di¬ 
rect connected in all cases. 

Remy dynamos are also built with a mag¬ 
neto type breaker mounted on one end of the 
armature shaft with a magneto distributer car¬ 
ried above it, thus forming a combined dyna¬ 
mo-ignition outfit. The dynamos in this case 
are of the two pole shunt wound type operating 
with 6 volts. These machines are positively 
driven at engine speed in four cylinder cars 
one and one-half times engine speed in six cylm- 


604 


The Automobile Handbook 

der cars and twice engine speed in eights. A 

separate 6 volt starting motor is used in con¬ 
nection. 

The 12 volt motor-generators (as described) 
are also built with the ignition breaker and dis¬ 
tributer added, forming a single unit having 
the functions of starting motor, dynamo and 
igniter in one. 

> Wiring for lighting, charging and starting 
circuits may be either two wire or one wire 
with grounded return. Switches, current in¬ 
dicators, junction boxes and dimmer resistance 
units vary with the make of car. 

Regulation of the amperage is accomplished 
in either of two ways. One method is by the 
third brush being below one of the main brushes 
on the left side facing the commutator. This 
brush takes current to one end of the shunt 
field winding, the amount of current flowing 
through this brush becoming less and less as 
the speed increases. The position of the brush 
is not adjustable. 

The other method of regulation consists of an 
electromagnet carried in the same case with 
the cut-out and operating to insert a coil of 
resistance wire, also carried in this case, into 
the shunt field circuit as the amperage rises. 

< ^ le cu t-out is of the electromagnetic type 
with two windings, shunt and series. The cir¬ 
cuit should close in the neighborhood of ten 
miles per hour, preferably at lower speeds. The 
cut-out mechanism or combination of cut-out 


The Automobile Handbook 


605 





































































606 


The Automobile Handbook 


Slid regulator may be mounted on the dynamo 
housing at the drive end over the armature 
shaft or as a separate unit on the dash or other 
convenient location. 

The current output should be about 7 am¬ 
peres at 8y 2 to 12 miles per hour, rising to a 
maximum of 10 to 14 amperes, depending on 
the installation. 

. Starting motor drive may be through reduc¬ 
tion gearing inside the housing as described 
for the double deck instruments; or by chain 
with overrunning clutch on separate motors 
but without the clutch on motor-dynamos. Sep¬ 
arate motors also use the Bendix tyne of in 
ertia pinion drive. 

. Startln g switches are of two types, both mak¬ 
ing the circuit complete without preliminary 
contacts. One uses the conventional type of 
tapered plunger, the other uses copper bands 
sliding on two cylinders, the cylinders being 
made of insulating material and carrying con¬ 
tact bands m such a position that the sliding 
rings complete the circuit from one cylinder 
to the other when fully depressed into position. 

Either switch may act by push or pull rods or 
foot buttons. 

. Fuses each of the lighting lines are ear¬ 
ned in the lighting switch. A 20 or 25 ampere 
fuse in circuit with the dynamo field is mounted 
above the magnet in separate cut-outs or on the 
base of combined regulators and cut-outs. 


The Automobile Handbook 


607 


A number of models of Remy generators aie 
built with a third brush type of regulation and 
have, in addition, a thermostatic control which 
is peculiar to these systems. The principle of 
this control is shown in Figure 295, the drawing 
at the upper left showing the thermostat with 
the contacts closed, the drawing at the lower 
left showing the contacts opened with the ther¬ 
mostat heated, while at the right is shown the 



connection of the device in the field circuit of 
the generator. 

The thermostat is composed of a resistance 
unit, shown connected between the upper and 
lower parts, two silver contact points and a 
spring blade which carries one of the contact 
points. This blade is made of a strip of spring 
brass welded to a strip of nickel steel, a com¬ 
bination which will warp when heated, due o 
the greater expansion rate of the brass. At low 


































608 


The Automobile Handbook 


temperatures the' contacts are held together, but 
at approximately 175° Fahrenheit, the blade 
bends and separates the points. 

When the thermostat contacts are closed, with 
the parts cold, the full field current from the 
third brush passes through them and permits 
full output from the generator. After the en¬ 
gine runs long enough for the parts to become 
heated, the opening of the contacts causes the 
field current to pass through the resistance with 
the result that the reduced flow cuts the charg¬ 
ing rate to a lower amperage. 


609 


The Automobile Handbook 

Rushmore Equipment. The Rushmore system 
was originally manufactured by the Rushmore 
Dynamo Works, but this company is now a part 
of the Bosch Magneto Company, and the prod¬ 
uct is known as “Bosch-Rushmore” and 
“Bosch.” The several unique features found 
in this equipment are described on the follow¬ 
ing pages: 

The Rushmore Engine Starter. The Rush- 
more electric starting motor, shown in Fig. 
296, acts directly on the flywheel without in¬ 
termediate gears, a pinion keyed fast on the 
motor shaft meshing with a gear on the fly¬ 
wheel rim. This pinion is normally out of en¬ 
gagement. The closing of the starting switch 
causes the pinion automatically to engage the 
flywheel gear before the armature starts rotat¬ 
ing. As soon as the engine picks up, the pinion 
automatically slides out of mesh, and remains 
out no matter how long the starting switch is 
held closed. There is no mechanism except the 
starting motor itself and the starting switch. 

When the starter is not in use the armature 
is held normally out of line endwise with the 
pole pieces by means of a compression spring 
contained in and acting against the hollow 
armature shaft. Magnetic pull is employed to 
engage the pinion. The foot button staiting 
switch has three contacts. At, the first pres- 
: sure upon the button the armature is drawn 
into the field with great force while rotating 
slowly so that the pinion teeth will engage. 
After the gears are fully engaged the third 


610 


The Automobile Handbook 


contact applies the full force of the battery to 
turn over the engine. 

The motor is series wound and produces a 
strong torque on starting. As soon as the en¬ 



gine picks up, the accelerated speed causes the 
counter electro-motive force in the motor to 
reduce the current flow to a value too small to 
hold the armature in line with the pole pieces 
against the end pressure of the spring. The 






The Automobile Handbook 611 

pinion then slips out of mesh and remains out, 
even with the circuit closed, because the cur¬ 
rent required to run the motor free is too small 
to overcome the spring. The armature will 
not again move endwise into its working posi¬ 
tion until it has stopped and the switch is 
again closed. The turning force developed at 
the flywheel rim is rated at over 400 lbs., suffl- 


IRON 

BALLAST 

COIL 


LAMPS 

—o— 
— o*= 


STORAGE BATTERY 



Fig. 297—Diagram of Kushmore Lighting System. 


cient to start the largest engine with ease. The 
motor is wound for a 6-volt battery. 

Rushmore Lighting System. Essential ele¬ 
ments of this system are: 1, the dynamo; 
2, storage battery, 6-volt, of 80 to 160 ampere 
hours capacity, depending upon size of the 
headlights; 3, switch and terminal block on 




























612 


The Automobile Handbook 

dashboard, which simultaneously switches the 
headlights on or off and switches the ballast 
coil in or out of circuit; 4, wiring and circuit 
switches for small lamps. 

Briefly the action of the dynamo is to reduce 
the strength of the field magnet at high speeds 
by means of counter excitation produced by a 
few turns of magnet wire, called a “bucking 
coil,” on the field poles. The amount of cur¬ 
rent passing through this bucking coil is deter¬ 
mined automatically by the varying resistance 
of a small coil of iron wire, called the “ ballast 
c°il/ ? which is made in the form of a cartridge 
fuse and carried in clips on the switchblock in 
the main line between the dynamo and the bat¬ 
tery. See Fig. 297. The effect of controlling 
the bucking coil by the current output is to pro¬ 
duce an approximately constant current at the 
higher speeds. 

Simms-Huff Equipment. This apparatus 
as generally mounted consists of a combined 
dynamo and motor with separate magneto ig¬ 
nition. One wire system with a grounded re¬ 
turn for all circuits is used. 

The motor, dynamo is of the six pole type 
and has a differential compound winding. It 
generates 6 volts as a dynamo and operates with 
12 volts as a motor. The drive for dynamo 
purposes is by belt from the fan pulley and 
crankshaft. .When operated as a motor the 
engagement is through a pinion which slides 
on a counter shaft between the armature shaft 


The Automobile Handbook 


613 


and flywheel ring gear and completes the me¬ 
chanical connection. 

The starting switch which makes the necessary 
changes in connections for charging or start¬ 
ing is located on the transmission case and the 
operating parts also act to slide the gears into 
mesh through the action of a stiff coil spring. 
Should the gears not match exactly, the spring 
compresses and allows the switch to close when 
the first movement of the armature under the 



Fig. 29 8 

Simms-Huff Motor Dynamo 
starting current brings the gears into position 
and the compressed spring forces them into full 

engagement. > 

Regulation of output is maintained, at a sul- 

fici^iltly high value (15 amperes maximum) by 
adjusting the tension of the driving belt. x- 
cess-output is prevented by the differential ac- 








614 


The Automobile Handbook 


tion of the reversed series field winding and 
bj a separate regulator having an electromag¬ 
net which acts to insert resistance in the shunt 
field winding with rise of amperage. This 
electromagnet regulator is carried in a housing 
with the cut-out. The output is adjustable by 
changing the tension of the flat spring. 

The cut-out is of the electromagnetic type 
ha\ ing two windings and the time of opening 
and closing is adjustable by a small screw. 

Two 6 volt, 35 ampere hour batteries are 
carried in one box under the front seat, being 
connected in series for starting and parallel 
for lighting and charging. A combined light¬ 
ing and ignition switch is carried; inserting 
the plug turns ignition on. 

Headlight dimming resistance is carried on 
the engine side of the switch and an ammeter 
switch and an ammeter is mounted on the dash. 

Splitdorf-Apelco Equipment. The electri¬ 
cal unit for these equipments is shown in Fig. 
299, and its connections with the balance of 
the apparatus is shown in the wiring diagram, 
Fig. 300. The wiring shown applies to the 
equipment operating at 12 volts for starting 
and 6 volts for charging and lighting. 

These systems use a combined motor dynamo 
which may also carry an ignition breaker and 
distributor on a separate vertical head driven 
from one end of the motor dynamo unit. The 
system is therefore of one or two unit type, 
no separate starting motors being used. A 


The Automobile Handbook 


615 


dynamo which does not act as a starting motor 
is used on the Stanley steam car. All gas cars 
use motor dynamos. 

The unit has four poles, three windings on the 
fields. One coil is ordinary shunt and acts as 



Fig. 299 

Splitdorf-Apelco Motor-Dynamo 


a shunt in both generating and starting. The 
output is controlled by a separate bucking 
coil through which all current from the dynamo 
passes, this opposing the shunt more and more 
as the speed, voltage and amperage increase. 
The third coil is a series winding for starting 







616 


The Automobile Handbook 


motor action, though it also assists the shunt 
while generating, making a compound dynamo 
with bucking coil and a compound motor. 



Two voltage combinations are used. One 
charges the battery and starts on 12 volts, us-" 
ing a six cell battery with all cells in series for 


Fig. 300 

Splitdorf-Apelco Wiring for 12-6 Volt System 



























































The Automobile Handbook 


617 


charging, starting and lighting. This is called 
the straight twelve system. 

The other system uses a six cell battery di¬ 
vided in two sections of three cells each and is 
charged with the two parts in parallel at 6 
volts. This system uses all cells in series with 
12 volts for starting while lighting is from the 
parallel connections, thus giving 6 volt charging 
and lighting and 12 volt starting, the proper 
connections and changes being made in the 
starting switch. This is the twelve-six volt 
system. 

Both types use separate electromagnetic cut¬ 
outs mounted on the dash in all cases. The 
cut-out carries two windings. The movable arm 
carries a marker which shows the word Oil 
on a dial whenever the contacts are open and 
the word ON whenever the contacts are closed. 
ON simply indicates that the current is flow¬ 
ing from the dynamo, but according to the 
number of lamps turned on it may be going 
to the battery or to the lamps or may be divid¬ 
ing between them. The engine speed at which 
the cut-out opens and closes may be changed by 
a small screw passing through the cut-out 
spring. This screw may be turned to -either 
lessen or increase the spring tension, thus low¬ 
ering the cut-in speed or raising it accordingly. 

The dynamo without starter action is a four 
pole shunt wound machine operating at 6 volts. 
Regulation is with a third brush which carries 
all the current flowing to the shunt field. 


618 The Automobile Handbook 

\ 

U. S. L. Equipment. Two distinctly different 
types of equipment have been marketed by the 
United States Light and Heating Company. The 
first type, which is described first, was used up 
to and including part of the year 1915. This 
type comprises a motor-dynamo mounted on the 
engine crankshaft with the controlling ele¬ 
ments, cut out and regulator, carried in a hous¬ 
ing on the driver’s side of the dash board. 

The type referred to above is known as the 
“external regulator” type, while the newer 
system is the ‘ ‘ inherently regulated ’ ’ type. This 
newer system makes use of a cut out on the 
dash, but secures regulation of current output 
by allowing the dynamo current, when exces¬ 
sive, to react on part of the field, and by reduc¬ 
ing the field magnetism in proportion to the 
speed and output, a proper rate of dynamo 
charge is maintained. 

U. S. L. Electric Motor Generator. In the 
system employed by the United States Light 
& Heating Co., with which many automobiles 
are now equipped, an electric motor generator 
is an integral part of the gasoline motor and 
furnishes current for starting and lighting. 
The system includes, besides the motor gen¬ 
erator, an automatic current regulator, an oil 
switch and a storage battery. 

The motor generator comprises a set of field 
coils, ai mature and commutator and brush 
ring. These parts replace the flywheel of the 
gasoline motor, being attached to the crank- 



The Automobile Handbook 619 

shaft in its stead. They are inclosed in an 
aluminum case and dust ring. 

When a starting button is pressed down, the 
current from the storage battery starts the 


motor generator. This revolves the crankshaft 
of the gasoline motor. With the switch of the 
ignition coil in either magneto or battery posi¬ 
tion, the gasoline explosions commence. The 
foot' starting button is then released, when the 


rr? 


1 1 








620 


The Automobile Handbook 



Fig. 302—Wiring Diagram of U. S. L. Starting System. 

























































































The Automobile Handbook • 621 


electric motor automatically changes into an 
electric generator. As the speed of the gaso¬ 
line motor increases, the generator gradually 
begins charging the battery, restoring the cur¬ 
rent discharged during the starting operation. 

An automatic regulator, controlling the cur¬ 
rent to the battery, is located in the center of 
the dash. It has a charging indicator, the func¬ 
tion of which is to show that the circuit is 
closed at the proper time, or at a speed of 12 to 
14 miles an hour, and that the circuit is open 
■when the car speed drops below about 10 miles 
an hour or the motor stops altogether. The 
regulator consists of a compound-wound mag¬ 
net and a variable resistance with magnet bar 
and contacts for controlling field current m 
the generator. 

The oil switch is included in this system to 
change the electric motor into an electiic gen¬ 
erator upon the release of the starting button. 

The type of U. S. L. equipment in most gen¬ 
eral use at present does not use the externally 
mounted combined cut-out and regulator but 
secures regulation of the output as a dynamo 
by means of a third brush system in which the 
flow of current through one of the field cir¬ 
cuits depends on the current flowing into one 
of the brushes. The system is known as “In¬ 
herently Regulated. ’ ’ An electromagnetic cut¬ 
out is mounted on the dash of the car and 
serves the purpose of connecting the dynamo 
and battery when the dynamo voltage is suffi- 


622 The Automobile Handbook 

cient for charging. The complete internal con¬ 
nections for this type of application are shown 
in Fig. 303. 

Above the cut-out are carried two fuses, one 
of six empere capacity and one of 30 ampere. 
The six ampere fuse is in the field circuit and 
will blow out should the battery lines become 
disconnected with the dynamo operating. The 
thirty ampere fuse is in the main charging cir- 
' cuit. 

The touring switch used with U. S. L. equip¬ 
ment may be opened when the car is used on 
long daylight runs, and by thus opening the 
field and charging circuit of the motor-dynamo, 
excessive battery charge is prevented. The 
two lamp combinations in use with this type 
are-shown in Fig. 303; one of these being a 
three wire system with 7 volt lamps, and the 
other being the usual two wire system with 
14 volt lamps. In either case, starting is ac¬ 
complished with 24 volts and charging at 12 
volts, the proper changes: in connections be¬ 
ing made in the starting switch. 

The relative location of the parts of a U. 

S. L. system having inherent regulation and 12 
volt pressure for all functions is shown in 
Fig. 304. 

Wagner Equipment. Wagner apparatus 
may consist of a combined motor-dynamo with 
cut-out and starting switch mounted on the *• 
unit, or of separate motors and dynamos with 
a cut-out on the dynamo or mounted separately. 


The Automobile Handbook 


623 



14-VqIi Lamp* 


7-Volt Lamp* 


Fig. 303 

Internal Connections of U. S. L. 24-12 Volt In¬ 
herently Regulated Motor-Dynamo System. 




























































































624 


The Automobile Handbook 


The motor-dynamo is a compound wound ma¬ 
chine using the series fields for starting. The 
^output is controlled by taking the shunt field 
‘current through a ‘Third brush” which is so 
placed that excessive amperage is prevented at 
high engine speeds. 

On top of the unit is a housing in which is 
an electromagnetic cut-out and also a rotary 
drum starting and charging switch. This 
switch makes such connections that starting is 
accomplished with 12 volts pressure by ar¬ 
ranging all battery cells in series, while charg¬ 
ing and lighting are at 6 volts with the two 
battery sections in parallel. 

The motor-dynamo is driven from the engine 
by means of a chain to the front end of the 
crankshaft and is driven from the engine by 
this same chain. The necessary gear reduction 
for starting is secured through a planetary form 
of gearing carried in a housing ahead of the 
unit, this gearing being brought into play by 
a brake band that is tightened by the same 
operation with which the driver moves the 
rotary switch to the starting position. 

If the dynamo, motor and ignition are all 
separate, the dynamo is shunt wound. Four 
brushes bear on the commutator, two receiving 
the main charging current. The other two 
brushes are slightly nearer together. The sec¬ 
ond pair of brushes carries the current to the 
shunt field and because of their location with 

✓ 

reference to each other act to decrease the cur- 


The Automobile Handbook 


625 


rent flowing to the field at high speeds because 
of the distortion of the path of the magnetism 


instrument board 


To the Ugbt* 


Tfcrmhwl Block 
' »nd Starting. 
Switch 



TVU or Sallonary Part 


MOTOR-GENERATOR Installed 


Fig. 3 04 

Arrangement of Parts in U. S. L. Motor-Dynamo 

System 

between the field poles. This regulation action 
prevents excessive charging rates at high speeds 









































































626 


The Automobile Handbook 



and causes the output to be slightly decreased 
at these speeds. The action of this form of 
regulation is also to increase the output with 
the increase in battery voltage so that the flow 
is greater to a battery when nearly charged 
than when nearly empty. 


Fig. 305 

Wagner Starting Motor With Gear Reduction 
L and M, Brush Holders 

The starting motor, Fig. 305, drives through 
a spur gear reduction and chain to the front 
end of the crankshaft. An overrunning clutch 
is built into the sprocket on the crankshaft. 
The starting switch makes the circuit complete 
without any preliminary resistance, the clutch 
providing the engagement. 







The Automobile Handbook 


627 


Westinghouse Equipment. Three distinct 
types of Westinghouse apparatus are in use. 
The first, and oldest, type makes use of a sep¬ 
arate dynamo securing output regulation by 
means of a bucking coil field as described in 
the following pages, and having an electromag¬ 
netic cut-out mounted on the dynamo. Another 
type includes a separately mounted dynamo 
having a vibrating reed voltage regulator and 
an electromagnetic cut-out mounted on the 
dash board or inside of the dynamo housing. 


The third type consists of a combined motor* 
dynamo having third brush regulation. 

In generating current the machine acts as 
a shunt wound dynamo, the reversed series 
coil acting to regulate the amperage in a way 
peculiar to these systems. One end of the re¬ 
versed series coil is connected to one of the 
dynamo brushes in such a way that current 
flowing into the battery for charging passes 
through this coil and by opposing the shunt 
winding keeps the amperage down to a proper 
point. The line which leads to the lamps rom 
both battery and dynamo is attached to a lea 
from the differential winding in such a way 
that current from the dynamo _ to the lamps 
does not pass through the bucking coil. a 
means that the amount of current which flows 
through the bucking coil with the lamps o 
is the entire amount from the dynamo going o 
the battery, but as soon as the lamps are turne 
on a part of this current passes to the lighting 


628 The Automobile Handbook 

lines and no longer goes through the bucking 
coil. The reduced flow through the bucking 
coil with lamps on allows the shunt field to 
exert its effect without so much opposition and 
the output accordingly rises to care for the 
additional lamp load. Should enough lamps be 
turned on to take the entire dynamo current, 
none will be left to the bucking coil and the 
dynamo will act as a shunt machine without 
opposition and give the fullest current flow 
of which it is capable under these conditions. 
Should still more lamps be turned on the ad¬ 
ditional ' current will flow to the lamp lines 
from the battery through the differential wind- 



WESTINGHOUSE 

Open 



WESTINGMOUSE 


C/osed 


Fig. 306 

Westinghouse Cut-out Used With Inherently Reg¬ 
ulated Dynamos 

ing, but in an opposite direction from which it 
passed in bucking the shunt action and will 
therefore serve as an additional series winding 
assisting the shunt and the machine is there¬ 
fore compound under these conditions and the 
output is still further increased. 

All dynamos of this type carry an electro-- 
magnetic cut-out, Fig. 306, on the dynamo hous¬ 
ing at the drive end just above the shaft, the 













The Automobile Handbook 


629 


magnet carrying two windings as is the usual 
practice. This cut-out should close at about 
8 miles per hour and re-open at about 6 miles 
per hour. It has no means of regulating the 
time of opening and closing. The wiring for 
this system is shown in Fig. 307. 

The dynamo having voltage regulation is 
of the shunt wound type and the regulator acts 
to insert a resistance in the field when the 
terminal voltage rises to the predetermined 
limit. The operating parts of the combined cut¬ 
out and regulator are shown with the cut-out 
open in Fig. 308, and with the cut-out closed 
in Fig. 309. The complete internal connections 
of the voltage control dynamo with self con¬ 
tained regulator and cut-out are shown in Fig. 

310. 

When the dynamo is being operated at a 
speed below the predetermined “cut-in speed”, 
the contacts of the cut-out armature are open 
the voltage of the dynamo being below that of 
the battery. When the speed reaches the “cut- 
in speed” these contacts are closed,, connecting 
the dynamo circuit to the battery circuit. The 
“cut-in speed” varies from five to ten miles 
per hour on high gear, depending upon the 
gear ratio and wheel diameter of the particular 

car. 

The “cut-in speed” can be observed by run¬ 
ning the car, allowing it to increase in speed 


630 


The Automobile Handbook 


slowly, and observing on the speedometer the 
speed at which the car is running when the 
cut-out contacts close, which is indicated by a 
slight movement of the meter needle. 



Pig. 307 

Wiring of Westinghouse Ignition and Lighting 
System, Inherently Regulated 



Westinghouse Voltage 
Controller, Cut-out Open 



© 

m ® rv, 


- 

© 



Sn 


X 



off 

1-1 ‘t 

1 



; 


Closed 


Fige. 309 

Westinghouse Voltage 
Controller, Cut-out Closed 


The regulator is so constructed that the cut¬ 
out operates to disconnect the dynamo from the 
battery circuit at a speed slightly below the 
cut-in speed This enables the cut-out to 













































































The Automobile Handbook 


631 


kGGp the circuit closed, and not constantly open 
or close it when the car is being run at speeds 


To Battery, tf-j 





Regulating Contacts 

r~fE£ 


O 


. . * 

Voltage Regulatin g Sc rew 


} 


Cutout v 
Contacts 


Cutout Arniature--~ jmJ (46^ 
Regulating Resistor 

—vwvw^ 

Jfc/y'w Compensating Coil 

~§K 



J/?4//7/ Compen- 
‘ if -—*. 


sating Coif 


\ 





Coil 


y 


Regulator' Shunt Coil ‘f 
k /Generator Shunt Field j 


Commutator- 









r 


if 


L 


- 

yBrushes 1 


H 


Fig. 310 

Internal Connections ot Westinghouse Self-Con- 
' tained Voltage Control Dynamo 

close to “cut-in speed”. This disconnecting 
of the dynamo from the battery circuit when 





























































632 The Automobile Handbook 

the dynamo, voltage is below the battery volt¬ 
age insures that the battery will not be dis¬ 
charged through the generator. 

The shunt fields of the dynamo are so de¬ 
signed that a voltage in excess of the normal 
voltage would be regularly generated when the 
dynamo is operated at high speed and no load. 
This excess voltage is prevented and the volt¬ 
age is held constant by the automatic voltage 
regulator. When the dynamo is operating be¬ 
low “cut-in speed” the contacts of this regu¬ 
lator are closed, and remain closed until the 
.armature is revolved at a speed which gener¬ 
ates a voltage in excess of a predetermined 
value. This voltage is fixed by the setting of 
the voltage regulating screw which is adjusted 
at the factory. When, due to the increased 
speed of the dynamo, the voltage tends to ex¬ 
ceed the value for which the regulator is set, 
the regulating contacts open, opening the di¬ 
rect shunt-field circuit and cutting in the regu¬ 
lating resistance. This causes a momentary 
drop in voltage so that the contacts close again. 
This opening and closing of the contacts is 
continuous, and so rapid as to be impercepti¬ 
ble to the eye. 

Dynamos are also furnished with ignition 
parts carried on one end of the dynamo frame, 
these parts consisting of a magneto type 
breaker which automatically advances the spark 
by a pair of governor weights acting as the 
breaker cams and a distributor mounted above 


The Automobile Handbook 


633 


the breaker. Otherwise the unit is the same as 

the dynamos described. 

The combined motor dynamos are four pole 
compound wound machines operating ^\ith 12 
volts, while the electromagnetic cut-out may or 
may not be employed. When the 1S 

used it is carried as a separate unit. These 
machines drive to the crankshaft direct through 
chains or gears without the use of overrun¬ 
ning clutches. . , 

Almost all Westinghouse installations use the 

single wire system with the positive side o 
the circuit grounded in all cases. . The groun 
return for the starting motor is assisted by hav¬ 
ing the cable enclosed in copper tubing which 
is attached to the metal work of the car an 
which is therefore free to carry the current to 


the motor. . . ^ ^ 

The lighting switch is usually of the pu 

button type. All circuits are fused, the car- 
ridge fuses being carried in fuse boxes wtach 
provide for 3, 4 or 5 circuits m addition to the 
fine to the battery. The'fuse for head and 
tail lamps should be 15 ampere, for side an 
tail 5 ampere, for tail alone 3 ampere and for 
additional circuits such as the horn 15 amper ^ 
When 6 volt bulbs are used with short wiring 
one of the fuses is replaced with a coil of re¬ 
sistance wire so that, the voltage to t ® 
with short connections may not e • 

With 7 volt bulbs this compensator coil is u 
"■«. Head tops may 1. *to.d by 


<634 


The Automobile Handbook 


throwing them in series or by arranging a re- 
stance coil in one lead to the lamps. Junc¬ 
tion boxes are used to centralize the connec¬ 
tions and disconnector blocks are used for al¬ 
lowing body removal. Either an ammeter or 
voltmeter may be used, the ammeter being con¬ 
nected on one of the battery lines to the lamps 
and dynamo in the usual way while the volt¬ 
meter is directly connected to the two sides of 
the battery, indicating the voltage at all times. 
The current drawn by the voltmeter is so small 
that it can be neglected in every way. 

Separate starting motors are of the four pole 

type, series wound with the field coils carried 

on two of the four poles, and operate with 6 
volts. 

Starting motors may drive the engine in any 
of five different ways. One system drives from 
a pinion on the armature shaft to a larger spur 
geai on a counter shaft, this larger gear hav¬ 


ing an overrunning clutch built into it. 
Mounted on the counter shaft is a small pin¬ 
ion which is free to slide on the counter shaft 
until it meshes with teeth on the flywheel rim. 
This sliding pinion is moved by a yoke and rods 
from the foot pedal, these operating rods also 
operating the switch. The first movement of 
the pedal closes the circuit through preliminary 
contacts and resistance ribbon, causing the 
starting motor to whirl with little power. 
Further movement of the pedal breaks this 
electrical connection but leaves the motor spin- 


The Automobile Handbook 


635 


ning while the movement pulls the gears in 
mesh. After the gears are meshed the switch 
has traveled to a position in which full con¬ 
tact is made and the motor turns the engine. 
Releasing the pedal opens the switch and the 
gears are thrown out of mesh by a coil spring 
in the gear housing. 



Internal Connections of Westinghouse Magnetic 
Pinion Shift Starting Motor Drive 


Another system uses the same arrangement 
of gearing between armature shaft and fly¬ 
wheel teeth but the gear meshing and closing; 
of the switch is accomplished by solenoid ac¬ 
tion in place of by foot power. Three switches 
are used, Fig. 3li, one being a push button on 
the dash marked “start,” another being a 
small cylindrical housing through which the 
large starting cable runs and to which the wire' 
from the dash button also leads and the third 
being the starting switch which is connected tn 
the shifting pinion as previously described. 



































636 


The Automobile Handbook 


Pressing the dash button allows current to 
flow from the battery to the small cylinder¬ 
shaped switch and through the windings of a 
magnet on this switch. This magnet pulls the 
contacts closed which allow the battery current 
to pass through and to the large starting switch. 
The large switch contains a powerful solenoid 
coil through which the current then flows and 
out through a small auxiliary wire to the 
ground. The solenoid immediately pulls on 
a plunger which is attached to the sliding gear 
and starting switch contacts and the action of 
closing the contacts and sliding the pinion into 
mesh is done by the pull of the solenoid is. the 
same way as previously described for the foot 
button action. As soon as the engine starts 
it runs the dynamo and the voltage of the 
dynamo rises to a point equal to the battery 
voltage. This balance of pressure prevents any 
more current from flowing through the switch 
operated from the dash button and the main 
starting cable contacts open whether the dash 
button is released or not. This kills the sole¬ 
noid action and all parts return to normal 
positions. 

The starting motor may also drive to the 
crankshaft through gearing or chains with 
overrunning clutch in which case the starting 
switch makes full contact in the first position. 

Some installations drive to the flywheel' 1 by 
means of a Bendix type of application. 


The Automobile Handbook 


637 


Steel. Steel is composed of extremely minute 
particles of iron and carbon which form a net¬ 
work of layers and bands. The carbon content 
of the steel is generally specified according to 
il points ,’ 1 a point being one one-hundredth part 
of one percent of the weight of the metal. A 
40 point steel therefore contains 40/100 or 2/5 
of one percent carbon. The greater the amount 
of carbon the harder and more brittle will the 

metal become. 

Other elements commonly found in steel in¬ 
clude the following: Silicon, which increases 
the hardness, brittleness, strength and difficulty 
of working. Phosphorus, which hardens and 
weakens the metal, but which makes it easier 
to cast. Sulphur, which tends to make the metal 
hard and porous. Manganese, which makes the 
steel hard and tough and of great tensile 
strength. Aluminum, which in small quantities 
helps to prevent blowholes. Chromium, which 
increases the strength; this element being often 
combined with nickel as an alloy. Tungsten in¬ 
creases the hardness without making the metal 
brittle. Vanadium increases the elastic limit,, 
making the steel stronger and tougher. 

Steel is made from cast iron either by the 
crucible, the Bessemer or the open hearth 
process. Steel may have a tensile strength vary¬ 
ing from 50,000 to 300,000 pounds per square 
inch, depending on the carbon, other alloys and 

heat treatment. 


638 


The Automobile Handbook 


Steering Gear—Principles of. In steering 
gears the generally accepted principle is that 
known as the Ackermann-Jeantaud, which was 
invented in 1878 and is a modification of the 



Fig. 312 

Designing Steering Knuckle Arms 
original Ackermann principle. In the Acker- 

mann-Jeantand system the steering knuckle 
arms OL and OL, when produced, meet in the 
plane of the rear axle or in this plane produced 
as shown by illustration, Fig. 313. The reader 
will appreciate that when the tie-rod L L is in 















Tlve Automobile Handbook 


639 


rear of the front axle, the steering knuckle 
arms, OL and 0 X L converge, as illustrated, hut 
should the tie-rod be in front of the axle, these 
arms diverge. Strictly speaking, the points A 



plane, are not so, and the axle line A, AI, is a 
tangent to the curve in which the points of con¬ 
vergence will fall in a complete sweep of the 
steering wheels from axle to axle. 





























640 


The Automobile Handbook 


It will be realized from the foregoing ex¬ 
planation that the dimensions and proportions 
of the steering axle parts depend on the wheel¬ 
base of the car, inasmuch as with a longer 
wheel base the distance that the lines would be 
produced would be greater with the increase. 



Fig. 314 






The Automobile Handbook 


641 


Several makers have, however, discontinued 
the design of steering knuckles on this princi¬ 
ple, preferring to design them as illustrated iu 
Fig. 312, in which the produced axis of the 
front wheels, A and B, intersect the axis of the 
rear wheel at a given point 0. With this con¬ 
dition fulfilled, the vehicle will travel around O 
as an imaginary center. Enthusiasts of this 
method of construction agree that the Acker- 
mann-Jeantaud principle is sufficiently accu¬ 
rate for angles of not more than 30 degrees, but 
for angles varying from 30 to 45 they claim less 
wear on their tires by the latter construction. 
The exact arm for the angles in a steering gear 
of this nature will depend largely on the wheel¬ 
base of the car as well as the difference between 
the steering pivots A and B. 

Steering Gear—Types of. Fig. 314 shows a 
sectional view of the nut and segment type of 
steering gear, in which there is a worm D on the 
steering column that engages with the nut E. 
On the front or gear face of the nut is a rack F 
which meshes with the sector G, so that as the 
steering wheel is turned right or left the nut is 
raised or lowered and the requisite movement 
imparted to the radius rod H. In certain screw 
and nut steering gears the sector is not required, 
the construction being a screw on the steering 
column on which works the internally threaded 
nut, and on either side of this nut are trunnions 
with links which connect with the axis carrying 
the radius arm. 





The Automobile Handbook 


6 42 

Steering Gear—Lost Motion in. If the gear 
is of the worm and sector type it may be that 
these two elements are not held in the proper 
relation to each other. Fig. 315 shows a dia¬ 
gram of this type of gear, and illustrates plainly 
the point where lost motion will be of the great¬ 
est detriment. When the wheel is turned, if 
there is the slightest end play, the wheel shaft 



Fig. 315 

will respond, but the geared sector will not, 
until all the end play is taken up, and as 
strains come on from the road wheels, the sec¬ 
tor will rotate to and fro, causing the shaft of 
the steering wheel to reciprocate and thus al¬ 
low the road wheels to wobble. To overcome 
this it is necessary to replace the thrust washer, 
if there be one, and if necessary, introduce a 







The Automobile Handbook 648 

washer, made of phosphor bronze, of suitable 
thickness to take up all the end play of the 
steering wheel shaft. 

Some lost motion will follow if the worm is __ 
not set on the pitch line, in its proper relation 
to the sector; this will be true if the bushings 
are worn, and when a new thrust washer is 
made and fitted into place, if the lost motion is 
still greater than is desired, the only thing re¬ 
maining is to replace the bearing brasses. When 
the gear is dissembled it will be possible to di¬ 
mension the same, and determine by measure¬ 
ment if there is any great amount of journal 
wear, thus rendering the task less troublesome, 
since the brasses may be replaced without wait¬ 
ing to determine the remaining lost, motion 
through actual trial. 

As a rule, it will be found that the lost motion 
is due to end play, just as the illustration shows,, 
and not to worn-out journal brasses on which 
the wear is far less than it is in thrust. If the 
gear is irreversible, or nearly so, as it is in many 
automobiles, a little lost motion is to be ex¬ 
pected owing to the smallness of the angle of 
the worm, which can only be irreversible if the 
angle is such that a little lost motion will be 

present and unavoidable. 

Care of Steering Gear. The steering gear 
is a very important part of the car, and, as the 
safety of the occupants may be endangered by 
any binding, the autoist should give it even 
more careful attention than the other parts- 







Fig. 316 

vv orm and Sector of Steering Mechanism 

The gear should be taken down, given a thor¬ 
ough cleaning and examined for possible wear. 


644 


The Automobile Handbook 









The Automobile Handbook 


645 


In case the steering action is stiff and the wheel 
turns hard, the ball joint may be out of adjust¬ 
ment due to wear; the steering link may be 
bent, or the cause may be insufficient lubrica¬ 
tion. If there is any considerable mount of 
backlash, the cause may be looked tor in the 
joints of the levers, in the swivel pin, or in 
loose bearings. 

Strength of Metals. The strength of a metal 
is most often given in terms of the ultimate ten¬ 
sile strength. This is the load per square inch of 


TABLE 13 

OF METALS 

Elastic Limit 
4,000- 6,000 


50,000- 70,000 
25,000- 35,000 
20,000- 22,000 
10,000- 15,000 
6,000- 20,000 
10,000- 20,000 
20,000- 25,000 


20,000- 30,000 
30,000- 40,000 
35,000- 40,000 
35,000- 40,000 
30,000- 40,000 
35,000- 45,000 
40,000- 75,000 
40,000-150,000 


TENSILE STRENGTH AND ELASTIC LIMIT 


Kind of Metal 

Tensile Strength 

Aluminum, cast. 

. 10,000- 16,000 

Brass, cast .*.. 

. 12,000- 18,000 

“ , rolled . 

. 30,000- 40,000 

“ , wire. 

. 60,000- 75,000 

Bronze, aluminum .... 

. ' 80,000-100,000 

“ , manganese.... 

. 60,000- 80,000 

“ , phosphor . 

. 35,000- 40,000 

Copper, cast. 

. 20,000- 35,000 

Iron, cast. 

. 14,000- 30,000 

“ , malleable. 

. 25,000- 45,000 

“ , wrought. 

. 35,000- 50,000 

Lead.. 

. 1,500- 2,500 

Steel, carbon, soft.... 

. 50,000- 60,000 

“ , carbon, .15-.30%. 

. 60,000- 70,000 

“ , “ .30-.40%. 

. 70,000- 90,000 

“ , “ , hard.... 

. 90,000-110,000 

“ , cast average.... 

. 60,000- 80,000 

“ , forgings. 

. 70,000- 90,000 

“ , nickel. 

,. 80,000-100,000 

“ , yanadium. 

, . 60,000-230,000 

Tin. 

.. 3,000- 5,000 

Zinc . 

.. 5,000- 6,000 


























646 


The Automobile Handbook 


section at which the metal lengthens and does 
not come back to its original form. A measure 
of strength that is fully as valuable in pratical 
work is the elastic limit, this being the maximum 
load that the metal will carry, possibly with 
bending or slight elongation, but after which 
it will resume its original shape. Another qual¬ 
ity of a material by which its strength is some¬ 
times measured is the compressive strength in 
pounds per square inch of section, this being the 
load that the material will carry without perma¬ 
nent deformation, when this load acts in a direc¬ 
tion which tends to crush the material being- 
tested. 

In Table 13 are given the tensile strengths 


TABLE 14 

SCREW THREAD STANDARDS 


Thread Threads per Inch Tap Drill 

Size U. S. S. S. A. E. Size 

1/4 20 28 7/32 

5/16 . 18 24 17/64 

3/8 16 24 21/64 

7/16 . 14 20 3/8 

1/2 . 13 20 7/16 

9/16 . 12 18 1/2 

5/8 11 18 9/16 

H/16 . 16 39/64 

3/4 10 16 43/64 

7/8 . 9 14 25/32 

1 8 14 29/32 

1% 7 12 1 1/64 

. 7 12 1 9/64 

1% 6 12 1 17/64* 

. 6 „ 12 1 25/64 


















The Automobile Handbook 


647 


found under average conditions, also some of 
the elastic limits of the metals commonly used 
in automobile construction. 

Threads, Screw. In Table 14 are given the 
number of threads per inch for the various diam¬ 
eters of screws in the United States Standard 
thread (Sellers) and also for the standard of 
the Society of Automotive Engineers (S. A. E.). 

Tires, Care and Repair. Aside from gaso¬ 
line the greatest expense in the upkeep of a 
motor car is the tires, and much of the present 
excessive tire wear may be reduced with reason¬ 
able precaution and care. There are ten com¬ 
mon tire diseases, as follows: wheel out of align¬ 
ment, under-inflation, use of anti-skid chains, 
skidding, running wheels in car tracks, neglect 
of casing repairs, tread cuts, running in ruts, 
stone bruises, use of inside protectors on new 
tires. 

When a tire is on a wheel which is out of 
alignment the result is that the tire is scraped 
across the surface of the road and the resulting 
friction causes the tire tread to wear rapidly. 
The action of the tire on the road is crosswise 
at the same time that the tire revolves with the 
wheel. Thus the tire receives its usual wear 
plus the wear due to the scraping. The tread 
of a tire which has been run on a wheel out of 
alignment presents a rough appearance,, that 
which would be given it were the tire held 
against an emery wheel for a while. Sometimes 
the fabric shows in places, and this is especially 




648 


The Automobile Handbook 


f 


true of wheels which are wobbly. It is advis¬ 
able to line up the wheels of a motor car about 
every three months, and if one is found which 
does not run true, the condition should be cor¬ 
rected immediately. 

Perhaps as much harm is done by running a 
tire under-inflated as by anything else. Under¬ 
inflation, as the name implies, means that the 
tire is running with insufficient air pressure. 
Such a tire appears usually with a series of hilly 
blisters running around the tread. The blisters 
are caused by the separation of the fabric from 
the tread due to the excessive heat generated in 
an under-inflated tire: With insufficient air the 
flexing of the walls of the tire causes heat to 
be generated and this heat acts on the cement 
between the tread and fabric and in a short time 
the two separate, causing a blister to appear. 
Even in the summer a tire should not be run 
under-inflated. The common version is, that if 
the ordinary pressure is 80 pounds, a reduction 
of possibly ten pounds is made for summer 
weather. The belief is that the heat of the at¬ 
mosphere will soon raise the temperature of the 
air in the tire and thus cause the pressure to in¬ 
crease to the proper point. This practice is not 
advisable, as there is undue wear on the tire 
while the pressure is being increased by the rise 
in temperature, and also because the pressure 
will drop as soon as the tire cools. The cure 
for under-inflation need hardly be stated. Keep 
the tires inflated to the pressure specified by 


The Automobile Handbook 


649 


the maker, which is usually 20 pounds per inch 
of cross-section. Thus, a 4-inch tire should carry 
80 pounds pressure. It matters not if the press¬ 
ure is a little more, but it does if the pressure 
is less than that for which the tire is designed. 
A tire guage, such as is sold for one dollar, 
should be one of the important instruments in 
the motorist’s tool kit. 

When anti-skid chains are applied to the tire 
too loosely or too tightly, the result sometimes 
is a cut tread. These chains should be placed 
on the tire so that they fit snugly and then no 
material tire wear will result. 

Running a wheel in car tracks may soon cause 
the sides of the tire to become chafed, and in 
some instances the wear is so much that the 
tread loosens at the sides and begins flopping 
around. The same appearance may result if 
the car is driven very close to the curb and the 
side of the tire made to scrape the stone. 

Little cuts in the casing often result in the 
casing being unfit for use in a short time. When 
a small cut appears and the tire is operated, 
dirt and water get underneath the tread. This 
dirt works its way around the tire under the 
tread with the result that the tire is soon loose. 
Water, as everyone knows, is detrimental to rub¬ 
ber, and more so to the fabric. Fabric begins 
to rot in the presence of water. The small cuts 
may be plugged with mastic. 

Often a cut appears in the tread and an in¬ 
spection finds that the fabric is injured also. 





650 


The Automobile Handbook 


In such an instance the blowout patch is the 
first resort. The patch, if wrongly applied, 
sometimes becomes wedged in the fabric cut and 
in this way hastens a blowout. The best way 
to treat a tire with a reasonably large tread cut 
is to have the cut vulcanized immediately. In 
fact, even small cuts should be vulcanized at the 
first opportunity. The owner may say that the 
cost of having the tire vulcanized every time it 
is cut is expensive. It may seem expensive at 
first, but the saving in tire wear and repair later 
overbalances the comparatively small cost of 
vulcanization. 

In the fall especially country roads present a 
mass of hardened ruts which play havoc with 
tires. These hard indentations house the tire 
for a while and then the driver will go over the 
rut. The driving in and out of these ruts ere- 
ates a condition which puts a tire in the rut- 
worn class. The sides of the tread begin to show 
rapid wear and sometimes the wear is great 
enough to cause a weak spot in the tread, with 
the result that the tire blows out. 

Stone bruises cause a great percentage of tire 
failure. "When a tire runs over a stone, one as 
big a man’s fist, there is a possibility of the 
fabric becoming broken. A broken fabric soon 
causes a blowout, so it remains for the driver 
to prevent as far possible running over such 
stones. Small stones sometimes present sharp 
edges which cut the tread and thus make an 
entrance for dirt and water. Stone bruises are 


The Automobile Handbook 


651 


hardly visible from the outside, as the condition 
is one of a fabric break, as mentioned above. 
The result of a stone bruise may be seen by ex¬ 
amining the inside of the casing, which will 
show clearly that the fabric is injured. 

Some makers state that the use of inside pro¬ 
tectors on new tires is not advisable, as these 
appliances create an undue amount of heat in 
the tire and thus hasten wear. For old tires the 
inside protector is perhaps the best accessory 
marketed for lengthening tire life. Some own¬ 
ers have obtained as much mileage with old tires 
and inside protectors as they have from new 
tires operated without protectors. 

Tire Vulcanizing. Absolute cleanliness is 
necessary in all vulcanizing work. No matter 
how good a vulcanizer you have or what kind 
of repair stock you use, the smallest amount of 
oil, grease or dirt will greatly impair the work. 
Therefore clean every repair thoroughly with a 
cloth or brush dipped, in clean gasoline and 
roughen the point of repair with a rasp or 
coarse sandpaper while still wet. 

Tires must be dry before beginning work on 
them, otherwise a porous patch will result. If 
you think, for any reason, that the canvas in 
the casing is even slightly damp, clamp the 
vulcanizer loosely over the tire for ten or fifteen 
minutes before applying the first coat of cement. 
Interpose a piece of waste or something of the 
sort between vulcanizer and tire to permit the 
escape of moisture. 




652 


The Automobile Handbook 


It takes from fifteen to twenty minutes to 
vulcanize a layer of Para one-sixteenth of an 
inch thick if the thermometer is kept at 265 
degrees, and five additional minutes for each 
additional sixteenth of an inch. Vulcanization 
will occur equally well at all temperatures be¬ 
tween 250 degrees and 275 degrees. The lower 
temperatures require more, and the higher tem¬ 
peratures less time than stated above. 

Inner tube 'punctures. Clean the tube thor¬ 
oughly with gasoline and coarse sandpaper, for 
at least an inch all around the hole (be careful 
not to get gasoline inside the tube) ; then wipe 
with a cloth moistened wdth gasoline. When 
the gasoline has evaporated cement the edges of 
the hole and apply a thin layer of cement to 
the tube for three-quarters of an inch on each 
side of the hole. Let the cement dry until 
the gasoline has all evaporated and the cement 
is solid enough to resist the touch. “Tacky” 
is the usual word. Apply a second coat and let 
dry as before. 

If a small hole, fill even with the surface of 
tube with layers of Para rubber cut the size of 
the hole, taking care that the Para sticks all 
around the edges. If a simple puncture, place 
a narrow strip of Para rubber over the end of 
a match and insert it into the hole. Cut off 
what protrudes outside the tube. Cut a patch 
of Para one-eighth larger than the hole or punc¬ 
ture and apply over same. Then cut another 
patch one-half inch larger than the hole and 


The Automobile Handbook 


6 53 


apply over the first. Cover and apply vulcan- 
izer. 

Repairs of this sort are to be vulcanized for 
fifteen or twenty minutes at 265 degrees. 

Inner tube cuts and tears. Clean as directed 
both inside and outside of tube; coat edges of 
cut and inside and outside of tube with cement 
and let dry. The ceqient should extend three- 
fourths of an inch back from the cut. 

Cut a strip of Para rubber as wide as tube 
is thick and stick on edge of cut; cut a strip 
one-half inch wide of Para rubber cured on one 
side, place it inside of tube under tear with 
cured side down, bring edges of tear together 
and stick them down to this strip. If you do 
not have any of the Para cured on one side 
regular Para may be used after cementing a 
piece of paper to inside of tube opposite the cut 
to prevent patch from sticking to opposite side. 

Apply another strip of Para rubber one-half 
inch wide on the outside of the repair. "V ul- 
canize for twenty-five minutes. 

The first step in making a casing repair is : 
just as in the case of all tire work, to thoroughly 
clean the point of repair. Apply from one to 
three layers of cement, allowing each to dry. 
If the canvas is exposed, as in a scalp cut, put 
on enough cement to fill the pores of the canvas 
and leave a smooth surface when dry. Fill the 
hole not quite level with surface with Para rub¬ 
ber. The best results are obtained when casing 
repairs are slightly concave. If filled too full, 




654 


The Automobile Handbook 


the rubber will expand and flow over onto the 
unprepared surface in a thin film that will soon 
peel up and cause trouble. Moreover, a pro¬ 
truding patch will receive more than its share 
of hammering and will undoubtedly split open. 

Tonneau, The name or term used in connec¬ 
tion with the rear seats of a motor car. Liter¬ 
ally the word means a round tank or water 
barrel. 

Torsion Rod. When the manner in which 
the power is transmitted from the change-speed 
gear to the rear axle on the shaft-driven car is 
considered, it will be apparent that the turning 
of the shaft imposes a twisting strain on the 
whole rear end of the car, and that if it were not 
for the frame, and the weight of the car on the 
ground, there would be a tendency to revolve 
the rear of the chassis around the shaft, rather 
than to turn the wheels. But it would be bad 
practice to permit this strain to fall on the frame 
and hence the office of the torsion rod, which is 
designed to prevent its reaching that member. 
On cars that are not provided with independent 
torsion rods, it will be found that the housing 
of the propeller shaft has been made corre¬ 
spondingly stronger, and that its support has 
been designed to enable it to act in this double 
capacity. This represents a simplification of 
design that will be found on quite a number of 
cars, as it eliminates a part exposed to mud and . 
dirt. 

Traction of Driving Wheels. A horse which 


The Automobile Handbook 


exerts a pull of about 375 pounds continuously 
for an hour and goes a distance of one mile in 
an hour is working at the rate of one horse¬ 
power. If for any reason the horse is unable to 
exert as much as 375 pounds pull when going 
at the rate of one mile per hour, he is thereby 
prevented from working at the rate of one 
horsepower. 

The same rule applies to a motor car. When 
the road is not slippery there may occur a con¬ 
dition which does not appear with horse trac¬ 
tion ; that the tires fail to adhere to the ground 
owing to insufficient weight on the driving 
wheels. In such a case it is impossible for the 
motor-car to exert a push of 375 pounds with¬ 
out skidding the wheels, and thus it would be 
impossible for it to work at the rate of one 
horsepower. With underpowered motor-cars 
this difficulty does not occur, but to develop 10 
horsepower at the rims of the driving wheels 
while covering the ground at the rate of one 
mile per hour, the car must exert a push on the 
road of 3,750 pounds. This is, on touring cars 
of ordinary weight, impossible, because the 
weight on the driving wheels is invariably less 
than 3,750 pounds, while the adhesion with the 
road is only a fraction of the weight on the rear 
wheels. As the speed rises, however, the push 
necessary for the development of 10 horsepower 
goes down until at 10 miles per hour a push of 
375 pounds means 10 horsepower. 

Thus a 40 horsepower car, if it could start 




656 


The Automobile Handbook 


work with the activity of forty horses, would, 
while it was moving at one mile per hour, exert 
no less a push than 40 x 375, which is equal to 
15,700 pounds. This tremendous push is ren¬ 
dered impossible by the fact that the wheels of 
a car weighing 2,000 pounds only grip the 
ground enough to exert about 750 pounds push. 
Beyond this point they will skid. 

This shows that a high-powered car, when the 
car is moving slowly, cannot develop its full 
power unless the road wheels are capable of ad¬ 
hering to the ground sufficiently to transmit 
this power. As a rule only about 0.6 of the 
weight of the car is on the driving wheels, and 
of that only 0.625 is available for the adhesion 
(owing to the coefficient of friction between 
rubber and road being 0.625). So a 10 horse¬ 
power car weighing 2,000 pounds cannot exert 
its full power when the car is starting, nor until 
it is traveling at 5 miles per hour. 

It would be wrong to contend that on all 
cars having the weight distributed as at pres¬ 
ent, a 60 horsepower motor is useless, but it is 
needless to say that the output of such a motor 
is not availabe at starting or at any speed 
under 30 miles per hour, although the whole 
power is more needed then than at any other 
time. The remedy which suggests itself is by 
using all the adhesion of the car, that is, to 
drive with all four wheels. 

Transmission. See Change Speed. 


The Automobile Handbook 


657 


Trouble Location. See Compression, Ex¬ 
haust, Knocking, Pounding, Preignition, Re¬ 
pairs, Self Firing, etc. 

Unit of Heat. The heat unit or British ther¬ 
mal unit (B. T. U.) is the quantity of heat re¬ 
quired to raise the temperature of one pound 
of water one degree, or from 39° to 40° F., and 
the amount of mechanical work required to pro¬ 
duce a unit of heat is 778 foot pounds. There¬ 
fore the mechanical equivalent of heat is the 
energy required to raise 778 pounds one foot 
high, or 77.8 pounds 10 feet high, or 1 pound 
778 feet high. Or again, suppose a one-pound 
weight falls through a space of 778 feet or a 
weight of 778 pounds falls one foot, enough 
mechanical energy would thus be developed to 
raise a pound of water one degree in tempera¬ 
ture, provided all the energy so developed 
could be utilized in churning or stirring the wa¬ 
ter. 

Vacuum Fuel Feed. See Fuel Feed, 1 acuum. 




658 


The Automobile Handbook 


Valves. There are two valves, one inlet and 
one exhaust, for each cylinder of a four cycle 
internal combustion engine. Some engines of 
recent design provide four valves in each cylin¬ 
der, two of each kind. Four types of valves are 
in use; the poppett, the sleeve, the rotary and 
the disc. 

Typical designs of poppett valve installations 
are shown in Figures 317 and 318. Both valves 
shown are of the mechanically operated type, 
the only method of operation at present in use. 
Such valves are opened by means of cams 
mounted on the cam shaft of the engine and 
are closed by the force of coiled springs placed 
around the lower part of the valve stem and 
attached to the end of the stem. 

There are three locations for the valves with 
reference to the -combustion space of the engine 
cylinder, all‘methods being in more or less com¬ 
mon use. The most popular location is in plac¬ 
ing both inlet and exhaust valves in a single 
pocket at one side of the combustion space, such 
a design going by the name of an “L” head 
engine. In other cases the exhaust valve is in 
a pocket at one side with the inlet in a similar 
pocket on the other side, this engine being called 
a “T” head. Overhead valve engines- are made 
with both valves opening into the top of the 
combustion space and operated by some form of 
rocker arm mechanism actuated from the cam 
shaft through vertical push rods. Overhead 


The Automobile Handbook 


659 


valve engines may also be made with the cam 
shaft carried above the cylinders. 

Pocketed valves can be exposed and removed 



Fig. 317 

Inclined Poppett Valve 


Fig. 318 
Intake Valve, 
Poppett Type 


through screw caps placed above the head of 
each valve and in the top of the pocket. Over¬ 
head valves are carried in cages which form the 






























































660 


The Automobile Handbook 


valve seat, the cage then being fastened into 
the head of the cylinder. 

Sleeve Valves. During the last few years 
there has been placed on the market a type of 
engine that does not have poppett valves, but 
which has a type of valve known as a “ Sleeve 
Valve.” See Engine, Sliding Sleeve Type. 

Sleeve valves are made by placing two sliding 



Fig. 319 

Sliding Sleeve Valves 


sleeves between the piston and the cylinder 
walls, Pig. 319. These sleeves are shaped like 
a section of tubing and are about an eighth of 
an inch thick. There are holes or slots cut” 
through the sleeves near the top, that is, in the 
part of the sleeve nearest the cylinder head. 






































661 


The Automobile Handbook 

The holes, or “ports” as they are called, are 
placed so that when the sleeves are placed in a 
certain position the holes are opposite each, 
other. When they are opposite each other they 
will let the mixture through into the cylinder or 
let the burned gas out into the exhaust pipe, 
depending on which thing it is necessary to do. 

The lower ends of the sleeves connect with 
small connecting rods which are worked up and 
down by eccentrics on the shaft that takes the 
place of the cam shaft. These small connecting 
rods move the two sleeves up and down so that 
when the piston is ready to start down on 
the inlet stroke two of the openings come oppo¬ 
site each other, one opening in each sleeve. 
These two openings are brought opposite the 
opening that goes to the carburetor at the same 
time they are opposite each other so that the 
fresh mixture can be drawn into the cylinder. 

After the piston passes bottom center the 
sleeves are moved so that the openings are not 
opposite each other or the opening to the car¬ 
buretor and the fresh gas is shut off. 

When the piston is most of the way down on 
the power stroke two ports on the other side of 
the sleeves, one opening in each sleeve, are 
brought opposite each other, and at the same 
time opposite a hole that opens into the exhaust 
pipe so that the burned gas can get out of the 
cylinder. After the piston finishes the down 
stroke, goes up on the exhaust stroke, and is just 
past top center, the two openings are moved so 





662 The Automobile Handbook 

that they close the hole into the exhaust pipe 

and then the inlet openings come opposite each 
other again. 

These sleeves are adjusted to open and close 
at just the right time by adjusting the length 
of the small connecting rods. 



Fig. 320 

Engine Having Single Rotary Valve 

The opening and closing of the ports should 
come simultaneously with the opening and clos¬ 
ing of the inlet and exhaust valves in a poppett 
valve engine. * 

Rotary Valves. Other engines are made 
without either poppet or sleeve valves but with 
a type of valve called a “Rotary Valve.” 





































The Automobile Handbook 


663 


Rotary valves, Figs. 320 and 321, are made 
by having a long round shaft run along the 
side of the cylinders near the cylinder heads. 
Holes are bored through this shaft so that the 
holes come opposite openings into the cylinder 
or combustion space and at the same time open. 


Fig. 321 

Engine With Separate Rotary Valves 

into the pipe leading to the carburetor or to the 
exhaust pipe, according to the position the pis¬ 
ton is in and the stroke it is making. 

This long shaft or valve is set in a position to 
open the inlet holes at the same time as the 
inlet valves should open in a poppet valve 













664 


The Automobile Handbook 


motor, to close the inlet holes at the time the 
inlet valves should close, and to open and dost 
the exhaust holes at the same time as the ex* 
haust "valves should open and close in a poppett 
valve engine. 

The rotary valve is driven from the crank 
shaft by gears or chains so that it turns half as 
fast as the crank shaft, just the same as the cam 
shaft would turn. 

Disc Valves. There are still other engines 
made with a type of valve known as a “Rotary 
Disc Valve.” These valves are in the shape of 
a piece of round iron as large around as the 
top of the piston and about a quarter inch thick. 
They are placed on the top of the cylinder and 

fastened to gears so that they rotate or turn 
around. 

Holes are cut through the disc so that they 
come opposite holes cut through the cylinder 
head. Some of these holes connect with the 
pipe that goes to the carburetor and others con¬ 
nect with the exhaust pipe. 

The discs are made to turn so that the inlet 
holes and exhaust holes are opened and closed 
at the same times as the inlet and exhaust 

valves are opened and closed on a poppett valve 
motor. 

All of the matter pertaining to valves on the 
following pages refers to the poppett type and 
covers the subjects of timing, clearance, grind¬ 
ing, etc. Subjects related to that of valves are 
treated under the head of Engine. 


The Automobile Handbook 


665 


Valve Clearance. A large number of motors, 
especially old ones, are unnecessarily noisy be¬ 
cause of superfluous clearance between the 
valve lifters and the valves, and a great part 
of the noise may be eliminated simply by the 
expenditure of a little time and care in reduc¬ 
ing this clearance to the minimum. Every valve 
earn, no matter what its shape otherwise may 
be. is tangential at the first and last portions of 
the valve’s movement. The sooner the valve 
takes hold of the cam on the lift, and the later 
it lets go on the descent, the slower will be the 



Fig. 322 


^mrpment of the valve at these instants, and 



on meeting , . 

Thp tancent line A B starts at A, and during 



The objection to an 






'666 


The Automobile Handbook 


simply the vertical hammering, but the sidewise 
pressure imposed on the valve-lifters by the 
cams, particularly at the instant of opening the 
exhaust-valves. If it were possible to operate 
the valves with no clearance whatever, and if 
there were no lost motion, and if the whole 
mechanism were ideally rigid, the line of pres¬ 
sure of the cam at the instant could be said to 


t 



b (1 veitical, and there would be no side thrust 
till the valve was off its seat and the pressure 
of the gases on the valve was partly equalized. 
As the matter actually stands, however, there is 
a side thrust which is considerably increased 
by unnecessary clearance, as comparison -of 
Figs. 323 and 324 clearly shows. In Fig. 323 
there is no clearance, and the tangent to 








The Automobile Handbook 


667 


the line of contact is horizontal. In Fig. 324 
there is a clearance, AB. The thrust acts at 
right angles to the tangent along the lme C D, 
and if C E represents by its length the force 
required to overcome the pressure on the valve 
and the force of the spring, there is a horizontal 
thrust equal to D E. It goes without saying. 



that valve-lifters thus adjusted will wear loose 
in the guides faster than the_y should. As t e 
gas pressure on the valve head may amount to 
30 or 40 pounds per square inch the instant be¬ 
fore the valve is open, there is an evident tend¬ 
ency to wear a hollow in the cam at the pre¬ 
cise point where it starts the exhaust valve from 
its seat. Evidently, moreover, the smaller the 












668 


The Automobile Handbook 


clearance, the greater will be the leverage of 
the cam, and the smaller will be its wearing 
tendency. 

The precise amount of minimum clearance is 
hard to state arbitrarily. The thickness of a 
business card or about 10-1,000th of an inch is 
ample allowance for the expansion of valve 
stems for the average length. 

Valves—Lead of. The higher the speed of the 
motor the greater the necessity for giving both 
the exhaust, and the inlet valves what has come 
to be known as a “lead ,” in that they open 
before the completion of the particular part of 
the cycle that they are intended to perform. It 
must be borne in mind that time is required to 
set a thing in motion and to stop it, regardless 
of its form or weight, and this is true of a gas, 
which has inertia the same as other substances. 
Further, an appreciable period, though very 
short indeed, is required for the creation of the 
vacuum in the cylinder. The gas does not rush 
into the combustion chamber the moment the 
inlet valve opens; the piston must have traveled 
downward a bit before this takes place and the 
column of gas then rushing in attains an in¬ 
creasing velocity as the piston approaches the 
lower center. 

Valve Timing. Before proceeding with the 
operation of valve timing, the proper clearance 
between the ends of the valve stems and the 
operating mechanism driven from the cam shaft 
should be secured. 


The Automobile Handbook 


669 


The time or point during the engine cycle and 
during the revolution of the flywheel at which 
the valves open and close is specified in degrees 
of the circle measured on the rim of the fly¬ 
wheel. One complete circle, or the entire dis¬ 
tance around the rim of the wheel, equals 360 
degrees. Therefore, one stroke of the piston, 
being one-half of a full revolution of the fly¬ 
wheel, equals 180 degrees. The inlet valve will 
open during the first half revolution of the fly¬ 
wheel, or during the first 180 degrees on the 
rim of the wheel. During the next half revo¬ 
lution, the compression stroke, neither of the 
valves are open, and likewise, on the third, 
power stroke, both valves are closed. During 
the fourth half revolution, the exhaust stroke, 
the exhaust valve is open. Because of the fact 
that the valves open and close somewhere near 
either the top or bottom of the several strokes, 
their opening and closing positions are specified 
in the number of degrees before or after the 
top center, this being the point at which the 
piston is at the exact top of its stroke, or else 
the time is specified as before or after bottom 
center, this being the point at which tin piston 
is at the exact bottom of its stroke. 

The valve action for any one cylinder of a 
four cycle engine is shown in Figures 325 to 
328. In Figure 325 is shown the beginning of 
the inlet stroke with the piston at top center 
and with the inlet valve about to open. The 


670 


The Automobile Handbook 


opening of the inlet valve is generally made to 
occur from 2 to 10 degrees after top center. 

In Figure 326 is shown the position of the 
valves and cams at the beginning of the com- 


INLET 

OPENING 


exhaust 

(closing 


© 

INLET 
OPENING/ . 


( s 

j>i| 

• 

E 


• 

< 


© 

EXHAUST 
\CLOSING 


K 


\ K V) ?~v 


INLET cam 
GEAR 



y EXHAUST CAM 
GEAR 

CRANK SHAFT 
GEAR 


Fig. 325 


pression stroke with the inlet just closing. This 
closing point is usually from 20 to 40 degrees 
after bottom center, allowing the inrushing gas 
plenty of time to fill the cylinder. 


































The Automobile Handbook 


671 


In Figure 327 is shown the end of the power 
stroke with the exhaust valve starting to open 
This opening should occur from 40 to 75 de¬ 
grees before bottom center so that the burnt gas 
will have an opportunity to start passing out in 



Fig* 326 

time to make a fairly complete exhaustion and 
avoid back pressure during the following up¬ 
ward stroke of the piston. 

In Figure 328 is shown the end of the exhaust 
stroke with the exhaust valve closed, this closing 














































672 


The Automobile Handbook 


taking place just before the opening of the inlet 
valve for the ensuing intake stroke, or, in some 
high speed engines, the exhaust valve may re¬ 
main open for two or three degrees after the in¬ 
let starts to open. 



The time during which the valves are open 
and closed during the four strokes is shown in 
Figure 329. From this drawing it will be evi¬ 
dent that the inlet stroke, measured by the valve 
opening time, lasts from 6 degrees after top 




























The Automobile Handbook 


673 


center to 30 degrees after bottom center, or a 
total of 204 degrees. The compression stroke 
lasts from 30 degrees after bottom center to top 
center, at which time the piston starts down 
again, making a total of 150 degrees. The 



power stroke, presuming complete ignition to 
take place at top center, lasts from this point 
to. 50 degrees before bottom center, or a total 
of 130 degrees. The exhaust stroke, longest of 
all, lasts from 50 degrees before bottom center, 







































674 The Automobile Handbook 

all through the up stroke, and until 5 degrees 
after top center, making a total valve opening 
time of 235 degrees. 

The examples given represent only average 





practice and it should be understood that the 
best valve setting for any one engine may be 
found by inquiry from the makers of the car or 
engine, or from a study of their instructions. 













The Automobile Handbook 


675 


In many cases the points of opening and closing 
will be found marked on the rim of the flywheel. 

Valve Grinding. To grind a valve pro¬ 
ceed as follows: First loosen the lower end of 
the valve spring from the lower end of the valve. 
This may be held by a number of different de¬ 
vices such as washers with pins under them, or 
grooves cut in the valve steam into which a 
washer slips. To loosen the spring it must first 
be pried up from the bottom, that is, so the end 
of the spring is held away from the end of the 
stem. This may be done by a special valve 
spring lifter or the repairman can make a forked 
lever so that the prongs fit on each side of the 
stem and lift the spring by resting the lever 
on some solid piece. Sometimes the spring can 
be lifted by taking a common screwdriver and 
using it to pry with. Before the spring can be 
raised, however, the cap that covers the head of 
the valve must be removed or at any rate the 
head must be reached. Now take a screwdriver 
or hammer handle or a piece of wood and wedge 
it into the valve pocket so that the head of the 
valve cannot lift. If this was not done the 
whole valve would lift when you pried up on the 
spring. 

After the spring is pried up out of the way 
remove whatever locking device was holding it 
and then the valve may be taken out of the hole 
above the valve head by letting the stem slip 
through the spring and locking parts. You can 
now examine the face and seat and you will 



676 


The Automobile Handbook 


probably find them pitted. Also examine the 
stem, and if it is dirty or covered with soot 
(called carbon in the automobile business), it 
should be scraped clean with a knife blade or 
some sharp instrument. There must be no ridges 
on the valve stem that might keep it from seat¬ 
ing the valve properly. 

A valve stem must never be oiled or greased 
under any conditions. They are designed to 
work dry. 

The valve is ground by placing some cutting 
material between the seat and face and rubbing 
them together. Valve grinding material may 
be made by taking emery powder of a fine grade 
and mixing it with enough engine lubricating 
oil to make a rather thin paste, or it may be 
made by mixing the emery with lubricating oil 
and kerosene. It may also be made by mixing 
powdered glass with a thin oil into a paste, this 
being used mostly for finishing the operation. 
If a very fine fit is desired a paste can be made 
with crocus powder and oil. A rather coarse 
paste is used at first if the surfaces are badly 
pitted and the finer, smoother pastes are used 
for finishing. 

After making the paste take a cloth (not a 
piece of waste), tie a string to it and stuff the 
cloth into the opening from the valve pocket to 
the combustion space. This is to keep the grind¬ 
ing material out of the cylinder, where it would 
do great harm. 

On the top of the valve head you will find a 


The Automobile Handbook 


677 


slot for a screwdriver or else some holes that 
take the end of a special fork-shaped tool. 
These let yon turn the valve face on the seat, 
and you will need a tool that fits the particular 
valve head you wish to work with. You will 
also need a small can of gasoline or kerosene 
handy so that the grinding compound may be 
washed from the valve and seat. 

The operation of valve grinding consists of 
placing a small amount of the grinding com¬ 
pound evenly on the face but not very thick. 
What you can easily pick up on the tip of a 
pocket knife blade is plenty at one time. The 
valve is now placed in the cylinder or part that 
it came out of so that the face rests on the seat. 
Now take the tool that turns the valve and turn 
the valve about half way around and then back 
again. Do this several times. Do not use much 
pressure as the pressure forces the grinding 
compouncf from between the face and seat and 

makes the work slower. 

After making several half turns the valve 
head must be raised and turned to a new posi¬ 
tion while it is not touching the seat, and then 
the operation is repeated. If you do not raise 
the valve from the seat every few half turns you 
will make ridges on the face and spoil the job. 
Also, if you turn the valve round and round 
without reversing the motion and raising it you 
will spoil the work. In order to raise the valve 
from the seat every once in a while you can 
take a light spring that fits around the stem and 



678 


The Automobile Handbook 


place it on the valve stem just under the head. 
This spring should rest on the metal of the cyl- 
x inder at its lower end and hold the valve about 
a half inch off the seat. When you press on 
the valve grinding tool the valve will be pressed 
down onto the seat, but when you release the 
pressure it w T ill raise again and you can turn 
to a new position without pushing up on the 
stem from below. 

The valve must be ground for a few minutes 
and then washed off and carefully examined. 
When the face and seat are a clean even light 
gray all around and have no marks or pits or 
rings at any point the job is finished. 

The next thing to do is to test the valve for 
tightness. This can be done by placing pencil 
marks at short distances all around the face and 
then pressing the valve down and turning it 
once around. If the marks are all off the face 
it will be tight. You can also pour gasoline or 
kerosene on top of the valve and watch for it to 
run down the stem. If it does not leak through 
it is tight. 

Now wash every trace of grinding material 
from the valve and the seat and valve pocket 
and replace the valve with the spring and the 
valve cap. 

Pitted Valves. A valve in a pitted con¬ 
dition causes bad compression, and the exhaust- 
valve should be ground occasionally. After 
grinding the exhaust-valve be sure that there 
is ample clearance between the valve and the 


The Automobile Handbook 679 

lifter. It should have not less than one hun¬ 
dredth of an inch, otherwise when the valve be¬ 
comes hot it will not seat properly, poor com¬ 
pression being the result. In grinding a valve 
there is no occasion to use force, and the grind¬ 
ing should be done lightly, the valve being 
lifted from time to time so that any foreign 
substance in the emery will not cut a ridge in 
the seat, or the valve itself. After grinding the 
valve always wash out the valve seat with a 
little kerosene, and be careful that none of the 
emery is allowed to get into the motor cylinder. 

A good mixture for grinding yalves may be 
made by using fine emery and cylinder oil 
mixed in the form of a paste convenient to 
work with. 

Exhaust-Valve Sticking. Sometimes a mo¬ 
tor may suddenly stop from the failure of the 
exhaust-valve to seat properly. This may be 
due to the warping of the valve, through the 
motor having run dry and become hot, or it 
may be from the failure of the valve spring, or 
the sticking of the valve-stem in its guides. The 
valve should be removed, and the stem cleaned 
and scraped, or straightened if it requires it, 
until it moves freely in the guide, and the 
spring is given its full tension. If the valve 
still leaks so that the motor will not start or 
develop sufficient power, the valve will have to 
be ground into its seat. 



680 The Automobile Handbook 

Vulcanizing. See Tire Vulcanizing. 

Watt-Hour—Definition of. A current of one 
ampere flowing in an electric circuit, with an 
electro-motive force of one volt, is equal to 
one volt-ampere or one watt. The voltage of a 
circuit, multiplied by the rate of the current 
flowing in amperes, gives the rate of work, or 
energy expended in watt-hours. 

It is oftentimes found that electric lamps for 
automobile lighting are rated according to their 
consumption in watts rather than directly in 
amperes. The number of candlepower secured 
from each watt consumed will vary according 
to the size of the lamp in candlepower, the 
material of which the filament is made and the 
type of bulb, whether vacuum or nitrogen. A 
small bulb with tungsten filament will use from 
1.10 to 1.25 watts per candlepower, and this is 
reduced until in the largest candlepower the 
rate is about 0.95 watts. The consumption with 
rarbon filaments is about two and one-half 
times that with tungsten. Nitrogen bulbs use 
less current than the vacuum type. 

Welding—Autogenous. This process consists 
of welding, or, more correctly speaking, melt¬ 
ing together metals by means of the oxyacety- 
lene flame, the temperature of which almost 
rivals that of the electric arc, being 6,300 de¬ 
grees Fahrenheit. The facility with which it 
can be handled as compared with most other 
methods makes its commercial application com¬ 
paratively simple. The possibilities attendant 
upon the use of a flame of such high tempera- 



The Automobile Handbook 


681 


ture can be realized when it is remembered that 
the melting point of steel is about 2,570 degrees 
and that of platinum, one of the most refrac¬ 
tory metals, is only 3,227 degrees Fahrenheit. 
Its chief field of usefulness is in combining such 
metal parts as would ordinarily be riveted, in 
welding small parts together, in repairing bro¬ 
ken or defective castings and for cutting metals 
of any nature or size that occasions demand. 

As it is possible to unite many dissimilar 
metals, and with a heat so localized that neigh¬ 
boring parts are not affected, autogenous weld¬ 
ing has already found an extensive application 
in motor car repair work. Broken crankcases 
or ofher parts can be united and made practi¬ 
cally as strong as new. The method of holding 
the pieces of a broken aluminum case, for exam¬ 
ple, is to clamp them into position temporarily 
while clay is packed around the parts and 
heated sufficiently to drive out the moisture, 
thus forming a solid support for the parts as 
well as a kind of mould. A series of holes are 
usually drilled at the crack, or the edges of the 
pieces are roughly beveled so, as previously ex¬ 
plained, the metal can be built up from the bot¬ 
tom. In some instances lugs or peculiar shaped 
projections may have been completely worn off 
or destroyed, when it becomes necessary to build 
up new ones with additional metal. In repair¬ 
ing'a cracked water jacket, after the edges of 
the crack have been prepared, it is customary 
to use copper instead of iron wire for the filling 




682 


The Automobile Handbook 


metal as it flows at a lower temperature and 
adheres very positively. In case there is dan¬ 
ger of warping, due to local expansion, the 
entire cylinder is heated before operating 
upon it. 

Wheels. The wood work of all wheels should 
be of selected grades of second growth hickory, 
or equally good growths of other hard woods. 
In the driving wheels the twisting moment of 
the motor is transmitted to the spokes of the 
wheels, and this torsion must be resisted by 
the wood at the miter, therefore, if the hub 
flanging is not clamped tight there is danger of 
the joints “working,” which will soon lead to 
something worse. When the hub clamping 
bolts are tightened up they should be so pinned 
that they will not turn with the nuts because 
if the bolts do turn it will be impossible to 
apply sufficient pressure, and the clamping ef¬ 
fort will be insufficient. Fig. 332 shows a hub 
in which the clamping bolts are prevented from 
turning by means of a triangular shaped exten¬ 
sion just under the bolt heads, which engages 
a slot in the flange. In this hub the flange is 
made integral with the brake drum, which also 
serves for the sprocket wheel, and the torsional 
effort is taken by integral metal at all points, 
thus relieving the wood work from shock. The 
nuts used on the clamp bolts shown in Fig. 332 
are castellated, although it is not necessary to 
use castellated nuts unless the flanges have to 
be removed, which in modern construction is 


683 




Fig. 330 

Rear Wheel Spoke, Showing Proportions 

































684 


The Automobile Handbook 


the exception, rather than the rule. In ordi¬ 
nary practice if the wood is thoroughly sea¬ 
soned, plain nuts, if screwed up tight will hold 
without resorting to the method so common in 
shop practice of riveting the ends of the bolts 
over the nuts. The elastic nature of the wood 
will serve to hold the nuts in place. Regard¬ 
ing spokes, a certain symmetry of contour is 
necessary if they are to be machine made. Fig. 



Fig. 331 

Section of a Hub at the Miter Showing Depth of Flange 
and Method of Clamping 

330 shows a spoke in which all the advantages 
known to wheel making are embodied, and the 
depth of flanging is that which experience dic¬ 
tates as adequate. The dimensions of the spoke 
are shown in detail in the cut. The brake drum 
is bolted to the spokes at a considerable radius, 
thus eliminating excess strain on the w T ood 
work. 

The strength of the spoke depends in a large 




















































685 



Fig. 332 

Section Through Rear Wheel with Combination Brake 
Drum and Inner Flange 


















































































































































































































































686 


The Automobile Handbook 


measure upon its thickness in the axle plane at 
the hub flange, which in Fig. 330 is 1% in. The 
second point of importance is at A, B, where 
the largest diameter is also 1 % in., but in the 
plane of the wheel instead of the axle. At the 
tenon engaging the felloe, this spoke is 1% in., 
in its major diameter, which is the plane of the 



Fig. 333 

Section of Felloe Depicting Tenon and Method of 
Wedging Which will Split the Felloe 


axle, while in the plane of the wheel the minor 
diameter of the elliptical section is 1 3/16 in., 
which dimension prevails in this plane from 
point A, B, out to the felloe. In some types of 
spokes the section at the engagement of the fel- • 
loe is round, and reduced gradually to the sec¬ 
tion at A, B. Fig. 331 shows a section of the 






































The Automobile Handbook 687 

* 

hub of another type of wheel, in which the 
radial depth of flanging is 2% in., and the axle 
thickness of the wood is 2% in. This wheel 
may be used on a 60 H. P. car, and will serve as 
a safe example of depth of flanging, as well as 
a guide in fixing the shear section of the spokes' 
for stresses induced, when cars of great power 
skid, provided the wheel is not dished. Fig. 
333 show r s the same spoke at its engagement 
with the felloe, indicating the manner in which 
the spoke is wedged into the felloe. 




Fig. 334 

Schwarz Wheel Showing Miter Joints 

Figure 334 shows the Schwarz type of wheel, 
indicating the method of overlapping the mi¬ 
ter, thus making it possible to true up the wood 
work independent of the hub. Fig. 335 shows 
a section of the hub, spoke and felloe of a 
clished wheel, and it will be seen that the felloe 
is not in the plane of the miter, and the dish of 
the wheel is outward. When a car is running 
at a comparatively high speed rounding a 
curve, the outer wheels are stressed in such a 


















688 The Automobile Handbook 

manner that the tendency is to set a dish in 
them exactly opposite to the dish given by the 
wheel maker. 

- The shorter the spokes are, the greater will 
the dishing have to be in order to insure that 
the spokes will be enough longer than the radial 



Fig. 335 

Section of a Wheel Showing the Dish, Which Has 
Strength to Resist Skidding and Lateral Stresses 

distance from the hub end of the spokes to the 
bearing against the felloe, to serve as members 
in compression, and the rim on the felloe will 
have to do the work. As the cut shows, the ex¬ 
cess length of spokes marked “ difference*, ” 
represents the versed sine of the angle of the 
spokes. 


















The Automobile Handbook 689 

Wheel Rim Sizes and Types. In Figure 336 
are shown the sections of the three standard 
wheel rims which are designed to accommodate 
the three types of pneumatic tire bases. At the 
left is the plain clincher rim which is made in 
one piece and over which the tire base is forced 
into place. The plain clincher tire for use with 
this rim is made with its base soft enough to 
allow the necessary distension in applying. 



Fig. 336 

S. A. E. Standard Rim Sections 


In the center is shown the quick detach¬ 
able clincher rim, often abbreviated “Q. D. 
Clincher, ” and which is designed to take a tire 
having a non-flexible base by the removal of the 
detachable ring from one side of the rim. At 
the right is shown the rim used with straight 
side tires which is similar in construction to 
that for the quick detachable clincher with the 














690 The Automobile Handbook 

exception of the shape of the flanges which are 
suited to the tire base. 

Wire Wheels. The development of the wire 
wheel has been very rapid during recent years. 
The invention of the wire wheel created a 
radical change in the method of load carrying, 
due to the fact that, instead of the compressive 
strain brought to bear upon a few spokes 
underneath the axle, as is the case with the 
ordinary type of wheel, there is a tensional 
stress on a large number of wire spokes, and 
the weight is thus held in suspension by the 
wire wheel with its steel rim and steel wire 
spokes. 

Although the pneumatic tire is a great ab¬ 
sorber of jolts, if the wheel strike an obstruc¬ 
tion the shock of which is beyond the capacity 
of the tire to absorb, and if the wheel is fitted 
with rigid spokes, this shock is passed directly 
to the axle and from thence to the car springs, 
and unless these are equipped with efficient 
shock absorbers, the passengers are sure to 
feel the effects of rough riding. On the other 
hand the spokes of the wire wheel all act as 
a complex yet effective shock absorber, and 
in this way tend to reduce in a large measure 
the annoying effects of these vibrations. An¬ 
other advantage in connection with the use of 
wire wheels is that the wheel itself, owing to 
its construction and the nature of the material, 
acts as an effective tire cooler, which is not 
the case with the wooden wheel, for the 


The Automobile Handbook 691 

reason that the spokes of the latter do not 
tend to radiate the heat generated in the tire 
while running, consequently this heat must 
radiate from the tire and rim and the process 
is a very slow and ineffective one. Regarding 
the two important features of durability and 
lightness of weight, experience has demon¬ 
strated that the wire wheel compares favorably 
with the wooden wheel. It is claimed that the 
lightness of the wire wheel is an important 
factor in reducing the tendency to gyroscopic 
action, which is always present in wheels run¬ 
ning at high speeds. 

The number of spokes in each wheel and 
method of their attachment to the hub and 
the rim vary according to the ideas of the 
designers. In some types of wire wheels the 
rim only is demountable, while other types 
have all the functions of a demountable rim 
and a demountable wheel. The Lindsay twin 
wire wheel (a semi-sectional view of which is 
shown in Figure 337) is a notable example of 
the latter type. The component parts of the 
Lindsay wheel are assembled into two complete 
self-contained sections or units, hence its name. 
There are eighty spokes that connect the rim 
parts and hub parts together. The wheel as 
a whole is mounted on the inner fixed hub and 
interlocks with it, also interlocking with the 
web of the brake drum. The form of structure 
gives two rows of spokes laced in each side 
of the wheel, thereby taking care of the side 






692 


The Automobile Handbook 


thrust from either side equally. The tire rim 
is mounted between the two conical felloe 
rims of the two wheel sections and is held in 
place by the rim bolts, thus making it secure. 
Since the tire rim is secured in place between 



Fig. 337 

Lindsay Twin Wire Wheel 


the two wheel rims by means of rim holts it 
is evident that both wheel and tire rims will 
expand and contract together. By removing 
the rim bolts with a wrench and taking off 
the hub dust cap, the outer twin wheel can be 
dismounted, , leaving the inner wheel intact, 
thereby releasing the tire. 

Another type of wire wheel is the Spranger, 














































‘ ' ' 

The Automobile Handbook 693 

a view of which is shown in Figure 338. In 
this wheel there are 48 spokes interlaced in 
a simple cross system and equipped with a de¬ 
mountable rim, which like the demountable 


Fig. 338 

Spranger Wire Wheel 
* 

rim on a wooden wheel, can be removed for 
the changing of the tire. The Spranger wheel 
itself is not demountable, and when installing 
these wheels on his car the owner obtains a 
complete new set of bearings, brake drums, and 





694 


The Automobile Handbook 


hub caps. This type of wheel has recently 
come into extensive use on the Ford and Chev¬ 
rolet cars. In the construction of the Spranger 
wire wheel a special type of channel is used. 
This channel is of structural steel, and is iy 2 
inches in width by % inch in depth, and into 
it the spokes are laced. The method of lock¬ 
ing the rim to the wheel is as follows: each 
rim has six steel blocks securely riveted to it, 
which prevent the rim from rising or losing 
position, while at the same time there is no 
wedging action. 

In Figure 339 is presented a view of the 
Houk wire wheel, made by the Wire Wheel 
Corporation of America. 

Each wheel contains 72 steel wire spokes, 
each of which, before the wheel is assembled, 
is subjected to a test and must withstand a 
strain of 3,200 pounds. The spokes are ar¬ 
ranged in triple rows as will be seen by the 
illustration, the triple lacing thus providing a 
set of spokes to take up the strain from any 
direction. 

One end of each wire spoke is securely riv¬ 
eted to the rim, while the other end is secured 
to the hub in its proper location also by riv¬ 
eting. It is claimed that the interlacing of 
the spokes is of such a nature that three- 
fourths of them are continuously in use, sup¬ 
porting the load by suspension. In case of 
tire trouble, such as a puncture or blowout, 
the wheel can be removed in a few minutes 


The Automobile Handbook 695 

by merely jacking up the car and unscrewing 
one nut. The wheel with the damaged tire 
can then be replaced by the extra wheel with a 
good tire. 

Mention has already been made of the in¬ 
creased efficiency of the wire wheel as a tire 



cooler, as compared with the wooden wheel. 
Another point in favor of wire wheels is the 
small area of spoke surface to be acted upon 
by the atmosphere in its resistance to the 
movement of the car. This resistance is always 
present, and the greater the area of the surface 
that, is .presented by a moving body for the 
atmospheric pressure to act upon, the greater 
will be the resistance tending to retard that 
movement. 



















INDEX 


A 

Page 

Acetylene . 7 

ethene . 317 

Acid, battery. 7 

picric . 503 

Adjustment, bearing. 86 

ignition. See name of system. 

Advance, automatic ignition.394, 438 

Air . 8 

cooling . 228 

resistance of. 8 

starter. 546 

Alcohol .10, 316 

cooling solutions . 239 

wood . 317 

Allis-Chalmers electrical equipment. 550 

Alloys . 14 

Alternating current . 16 

Aluminum . 16 

solder . 17 

Ammeter, construction of. 19 

use of . 18 

Ampere . 23 

-hour . 23 

Annealing . 23 

Anti-freeze mixtures. 239 

Armature, dynamo .24, 25 

Assembling ..... 511 

Atwater Kent ignition. 366 

wiring . 355 

Autolite electrical equipment. 556 

Automatic advance .394, 438 

Automobile ... 26 

Axle, front. 27 

full-floating . 34 

rear . 33 

rear, internal gear. 38 

rear, worm driven.* 44 

semi-floating . S3 

three-quarter floating .33, 37 








































The Automobile Handbook 


697 


B 


Ball bearings . 

Ball-socket joints. 

Band clutch. 

Battery connections . 

dry . 

storage . 

storage, care of . 

. storage, charging - 

storage, testing. 

Bearing, ball. 

ball, capacity of ...... 

ball, lubrication. 

metals . 

plain . 

roller.. 

Bendix drive. 

Benzine . 

Berline . 

Bijur electrical equipment 

Bodies . 

Bosch electrical equipment 

magneto. 

Brakes . 

lining for. 

use of . 

Brass. 

Brazing . 

Bronze . 


Page 

. 74 

. 473 

. 209 

. 53 

. 51 

.55, 67 

.58, 68, 72 

. 65 

.65, 69 

. 74 

. 73 

. 79 

. 14 

. 82 

. 89 

. 93 

. 316 

. 102 

. 559 

. 96 

. 564 

408, 410, 414, 425, 464 

. 105 

. 109 

. 258 

.. 15 

.•. 115 

. 15 


C 


Cabriolet . 

Camshaft, engine ... 

Carbon deposit, removal of. ; . 

Carburetion (see also Fuels, Fuel Mixtures and 
Fuel Feed). 

Carburetor, action of. 

alcohol . 

fuel, flow in. 

; Holly .. 

inlet manifold. 

kerosene . 

Kingston . 

Ray field .. 


104 

282 

118 


121 

13 

336 

132 

284 

317 

138 

140 










































698 The Automobile Handbook 

Page 

Schebler . 147 

Stromberg . 152 

Zenith . 168 

Care and repair of cars . 511 

Cell, dry. 51- 

storage . 55 

Centrifugal pump . 234 

Chain drive . 175 

Change speed gearing . 181 

Change speed gear, magnetic. 493 

Charging, storage battery. 65 

Chassis .207, 531 

Chauffeur . 207 

Close coupled body. 100 

Clutch, action of. 207 

band . 209 

cone . 210 

disc . 214 

plate . 216 

trouble . 217 

Coil, induction . 351 , 472 

Commutator, ignition . 361 

Compressed air starter. 546 

Compression . 221 

Condenser, ignition. 223 

Conductors, electrical and heat. 227 

Cone clutch . 210 

Connecticut ignition . 376 

wiring..350 

Cooling . 228 

anti-freeze mixtures for. 239 

water pump for . * 234 

c °upe .103 

Coupling, Oldham . 246 

Cut-out, electric. See name of system. 

muffler .'. 501 

Current, alternating and direct.’. ’ 16 

secondary.* 531 

D 

Delco electrical equipment. 566 

Ignkion.""" 3 S 1 

Differential . 247 

bevel gear .* ’ 249 

spur gear.252 












































The Automobile Handbook 


699 

Page 

Disc clutch . 214 

valves . 664 

Distributor . 362 

Dixie magneto . 425 

Double ignition . 405 

Drive, Bendix . 93 

bevel gear . 33 

.chain . 175 

friction . 182 

internal gear. 38 

planetary . 190 

shaft . 532 

sliding gear. 181 

worm gear. 44 

Driving, automobile . 256 

Dry battery. 51 

Dual ignition . 405 

Dynamometer . 267 

Dynamo armature .24, 25 

Dynamo, electric lighting. See name of system. 
Dyneto electrical equipment . 588 


E 


Eisemann magneto .430, 465 

Electricity . 267 

Electric gear shift . 493 

Electrolyte, battery. 7 

gravity of . 538 

Electromotive force . 267 

Engine, automobile (see also valves). 268 

compression in. 221 

eight and twelve cylinder. 301 

flywheel . 281 

four cycle . 289 

horsepower of . 242 

pistons . 277 

sliding sleeve . 296 

two cycle . 291 

Equalizer, brake . 112 

Exhaust, smoky . 212 

Expansion of mixture . 312 


Fires, extinguishing 
Fluxes, soldering . 


338 

528 










































700 The Automobile Handbook 

Page 

Flywheel, engine. 281 

Ford magneto . 441 

lubrication . 490 

transmission . 190 

Four cycle engine . 289 

Frames . 213 

Friction . 214 

transmission .182 

Front axle . 27 

Fuel (see also Alcohol, Gasoline, Kerosene). .130, 315 

alcohol as a. 19 

feed, vacuum. 327 

kerosene as a . 478 

mixture . 318 

G 

Oases, expansion of . 336 

•Gasoline ...316, 336 

air mixtures . 318 

viscosity of . 336 

Gearing, change speed. 181 

horsepower transmitted by. 338 

planetary . 340 

Generators, electric lighting. See name of system. 

Gravity, specific. 538 

Gray and Davis electrical equipment. 591 

H 

Heat, unit of. 657 

Heinze magneto wiring. 466 

Holly carburetor . 132 

Horsepower . 341 

electrical . 345 

required . 8 

I 

Ignition (see also Magneto).... 347 

Atwater Kent . 366 

condenser. 223 

Connecticut . 376 

control . 261 

Delco . 381 

distributor . 363 

double . 405 






































The Automobile Handbook 


701 


dual . 

Heinze . 

Kingston . 

magnetic type. 

Mea . 

Remy battery . 

Remy magneto ... 
Simms magneto ... 

single . 

Splitdorf . 

timing. 

transformer coil .., 

trouble . 

types of . 

Westinghouse .... 

Induction coil . 

Inductor magneto. 

Inertia . 

Insulators . 

Internal gear rear axle 


Page 
.... 405 
.... 466 
, ... 466 
.... 402 
.... 465 
.... 388 
451, 468 
.... 469 
.... 404 
458, 471 
.... 363 
.... 405 
.... 364 
.... 404 

_392 

351, 472 
425, 448 
... . 472 
227, 472 
.... 38 


J 


Joints, ball and socket 

knuckle. 

universal . 


473 

474 
474 


K 


Kerosene . 

as a fuel . 

Kingston carburetor 

magneto . 

Knight engine .... 

Knocking . 

Knuckle, steering . 


317 

478 
138 
466 
296 

479 
31 


L 


Lamps, electric . 

Land an let. 

Lighting batteries.• 

Lighting, electric (see starters) 

Limousine . # . 

Lubrication (see also Oil). 

gear and clutch . 

gear case and axle. 


. 481 

. 102 

. 103 

. 546 

. 101 

482, 485, 490 

. 490 

. 492: 









































702 The Automobile Handbook 

M * 

Page 

Magnetic gear shift . 493 

transmission . 201 

Magnetism . 498 

Magneto, action of.. 402 

Bosch .408, 421, 464 

care . 418 

Dixie . 425 

Eisemann .430, 465 

Ford . 441 

Heinze . 466 

inductor . 448 

Kingston . 466 

Mea.443, 465 

removal and replacement . 405 

Remy ... .448, 468 

Simms .L .453, 469 

Splitdorf .456, 471 

Manifold, inlet . 284 

Mea magneto . 443 r 465 

Metal, strength of. 645 

Mixture, fuel (see also fuel). 318 

Motor, automobile (see engine). 268 

spirit . 317 

Muffler, exhaust . 499 

N 

North East electrical equipment. 601 

O 

Oil, (see also Lubrication). 482 

tests of .485, 488 

Oldham coupling . 246 

Overhauling.’ * * 511 

Owen magnetic transmission. 201 

Oxy-acetylene welding . 680 

P 

Packing, materials for . 502 

Picric acid.’ * ’ ’ ’ 503 

Piston, engine.’ * * * 274 




































The Automobile Handbook 


703 

Page 

Plain bearings. 82 

Planetary gearing . 340 

transmission . 187 

Plate clutch. 216 

Pings, spark .533, 537 

Polarity . 503 

Porcelain . 504 

Pounding, causes of . 504 

Preignition . 532 

causes of . 505 

Pump, water . 234 


R 


Radiator—see Cooling. 

Rayfield carburetor .. 

Rear axle. 

Regulator, current, Allis-Chalmers 

Bijur . 

Bosch . 

Delco. 

Gray and Davis . 

North East . 

Remy . 

Rushmore. 

Simms-Huff . 

Splitdorf-Apelco. 

U. S. L. 

Wagner. 

Westinghouse . 

Remy electrical equipment. 

ignition . 

magneto . 

wiring. 

Repair work . 

Resistance, electrical . 

Rheostat. 

Rim, wheel . 

Ring^, piston . 

Roadster . 

Roller bearings. 

Rotary valves. 

Runabout . 

Running gear . 

Rushmore electrical equipment .. 


. 140 

. 33 

. 552 

. 559 

. 565 

567, 576, 581, 585 

.592, 596 

. 601 

.604, 607 

. 612 

. 613 

. 615 

. 621 

. 624 

.627, 629 

. 602 

388 

448,’ 451,' 467, 468 

.'. 350 

. 511 

. 227 

. 531 

. 689 

. 280 

. 101 

. 89 

. 662 

. 101 

. 531 

. 609 











































704 


The Automobile Handbook 


S 

Page 

Sedan . 102 

Shop work. 511 

Simms-Huff electrical equipment. 612 

Simms magneto .453, 469 

Single ignition. 404 

Skidding. 260 

Sleeve valves. 660 

Sliding gear transmission. 192 

sleeve engine . 296 

Solder, aluminum. 17 

Soldering .527, 532 

Spark plugs . 533 

Specific gravity . 538 

Splitdorf-Apelco electrical equipment. 614 

Splitdorf magneto .456, 458, 470, 471 

Springs, automobile . 539 

care of . 543 

dimensions of. 541 

eye and clip sizes. 544 

, leaf points of . 545 

testing of. 542 

Sprockets . 177 

Starter, air. 546 

engine . 546 

Allis-Chalmers . 550 

Autolite . 556 

Bijur . 559 

Bosch. 564 

Delco . 566 

Dyneto . 588 

Gray and Davis. 591 

North East. 601 

Remy. 602 

Rushmore . 609 

Simms-Huff . 612 

Splitdorf-Apelco . 614 

U. S. L. 618 

Wagner. 622 

Westinghouse . 627 

Starting motor drive, Bendix. 93 

Steel .. 637 

Steering gear . 638 

knuckle . 31 

Storage battery. 55, 67 














































The Automobile Handbook 


Strength of metal ... 
Stromberg carburetor 


705 

Page 
. 645' 
. 152 


T 


Tar benzol . 

Thermo-syphon cooling 


Threads, screw. 

Timer, ignition . 

Timing of valves.. 

of ignition (see also name of System) 

Tire care and repair. 

vulcanizing .. 

Tools, automobile . 

Torpedo body . 

Torsion rod . 

Touring car. 

Town car . 

Traction of driving wheels . 

Transformer coil ignition. 

Transmission (see also Change Speed)... 


Ford . 

friction .... 
gearless ... 
gearing 
magnetic . 
planetary . 
sliding gear 
Trouble, clutch 
cooling 
ignition .. 
knocking .. 


pounding . 

preignition 
starting and lighting 

steering gear . 

storage battery. 

Two cycle engine. 


.. 316 
.. 232 
.. 647 
.. 361 
.. 668 
.. 363 
.. 647 
651 
... 513 
... 100 
... 654 
... 100 
... 103 
... 654 
... 405 
... 181 
... 190 
... 182 
... 200 
... 338 
... 201 
,...187 
,... 192 
. ... 217 
236, 245 
. ... 364 
.... 479 
.... 504 
.... 505 
.... 554 
.... 642 
.... 59 

.... 291 


U 

Unit of heat . 

Universal joint..* * 

U. S. L. electrical equipment 

V 


657 

474 

618 


327 


Vacuum fuel feed 









































706 


The Automobile Handbook 


Valves, automobile engine . 658 

clearance of. 665 

disc .664 

grinding of . 675 

lead of .668 

location of. 658 

rotary ." 662 

sleeve .296, 660 

tappet adjustment of . 665 

timing of .* ’ .* * 668 

Vulcanizing . 


W 


Wagner electrical equipment. 

Water cooling. 

Watt-hour . 

Welding, oxy-acetylene . 

Westinghouse electrical equipment 

ignition. 

Wheels, wood . 

wire . 

Wiring, Allis-Chalmers . 

Atwater Kent. 

Bijur./. 

Bosch .* 

Connecticut . 

Delco . 

Eisemann . 

Gray & Davis. 

Heinze. 

Kingston . 

Mea . ’ 

Remy . 

Remy magneto. 

Simms magneto . 

Splitdorf-Apelco. 

Splitdorf magneto. 

U. S. L.7// 

Westinghouse . 

Westinghouse ignition. 

Worn driven rear axle. 


. 622 

. 232 

. 680 

.. 680 

. 627' 

. 392 

. 682 

. 690 

. 553 

. 355 

.561, 562 

410, 414, 425, 464 

. 350 

.567, 568, 577 

. 465 

.593, 597 

. 466 

. 466 

. 465 

.350, 605 

451, 452, 467, 468 

. 469 

. 616 

458, 459, 470, 471 

.620, 623 

... .630, 631, 635 

. 39& 

. 44 


Z 


Zenith carburetor 


168 










































GAS AND OIL ENGINES 


_ 












\ 


Gas and Oil Engine Hand-bool; 


Actual Horsepower. The expression actual 
horsepower is equivalent to brake horsepower 
and is used to designate the power which an 
engine develops at the driving pulley. 

The actual or brake horsepower of an engine 
is obtained by means of a Prony brake or a 
dynamometer which gives the actual work or per¬ 
formance of the engine in foot-pounds for any 
given length of time. 

Adjustment. Adjusting the parts of a gas 
engine is not generally as well understood as it 
might be. It pays to take time and do the work 
properly, then it will not be necessary to tinker 

with one part or another. 

When main bearings are loose, the balance 
wheel will deflect as shown by the dotted lines 
J J, which is a sure indication that bearings on 
the crank shaft are too loose and allow it to 
spring at every explosion. This play around 
the crank shaft is shown at N in Figure 1, p. 10. 
The bearings have come loose, and sometimes 

the result will be a broken shaft. 

A crank bearing can be run very close if it is 
properly set up and all bolts firm, otherwise it 

will run hot quickly. 


7 



S GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

The working parts of a gas engine are more 
difficult to keep tight than those of a steam 
engine owing to the high pressure carried in the 
cylinder, both in compression and explosion. 

It is very important to watch a newly adjusted 
bearing for a time after starting the machine. 
If the bearing shows signs of heating stop the 
machine promptly; cool down the overheated 
parts and readjust until the job is right. 

In gas engine practice the bearings for the 
ends of the connecting rod are generally secured 
to the rod proper by bolts and lock nuts. In 
adjusting always make the lock nuts secure 
before leaving the job. 

Anti-freezing Solutions. To prevent freezing 
the water in the jacket when the engine is not in 
operation in cold weather, solutions are used, 
notably of glycerine and of calcium chloride. 
The proportions for the former solution are equal 
parts of water and glycerine, by weight, for the 
latter, approximately, one-half gallon of water to 
eight pounds of calcium chloride, or a saturated 
solution at 60 degrees Fahrenheit. This solution 
is then mixed with equal parts of water, gallon 
for gallon. Use the chemically pure salt only, 
avoiding the use of the crude calcium chloride or 
chloride of lime. 

Another easily prepared solution which may 
be relied upon to withstand a temperature as 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


9 


low as 20 degrees below zero, F., consists of a 
mixture of one-half clear water and one-half de¬ 
natured alcohol, to which should be added 4 to 
6 ounces of glycerine to prevent the alcohol 
from evaporating. 

Backfiring. Its principal cause is a prolonged 
combustion of the previous charge. When the 
charge entering the cylinder does not contain the 
proper amount of. fuel it makes a slow burning 
mixture. This mixture may be so slow in com¬ 
bustion that it continues to burn not only during 
the working stroke, but also during the exhaust 
stroke of the piston, and there still remains 
enough flame in the cylinder to fire the fresh 
charge being drawn into the cylinder. 

Any projecting point in the valve chamber or 
deposits of carbon in the cylinder may become 
heated and serve to ignite the incoming charge. 

Regulating the fuel or air supply will remedy 
the backfiring if caused by a weak or a too 
strong mixture. If this does not remedy it, 
deposits of carbon or projecting points should be 
looked for and removed. 

Bearings. Plain-bearings are almost invari¬ 
ably used in the construction of gas and oil 
engines on account of their simplicity, ease of 
renewal and practically inexpensive construction. 
Figure 2 shows a form of crank shaft bearing 
much used by the builders of stationary gas and 
oil engines. 


10 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND BOOK 

The ball bearing is one of the many devices 
which involve in their successful operation, or 
application, many steps and in the right 
direction. 

We find the best designs of today still assume 
that the balls and races are round. The neces¬ 
sity of the balls and races being perfectly round, 
as near as possible, is much better understood 
than in the earlier days. Steel is no longer 
implicitly assumed as undeformable as it was 
years ago, for it is dealt with on the basis of 
exactly what it is—a hard, elastic and compres¬ 
sible material. The contacts of the balls with 
the two raceways between which they roll must 
be regulated so that there will be no sliding 
around the race, and further, the sliding contact 
due to the squeezing of the ball and raceway 
together must be reduced to a minimum. 
























GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 11 

For plain-bearings, the shafts of which are 
continuously running at a high rate of spcea, the 
working pressure per square inch should not 
exceed 400 pounds. As the arc of contact or 
actual bearing surface of a journal-bearing is 
assumed as one-third of the circumference of the 
journal itself, the pressure per square inch upon 
a bearing is 
therefore equal 
to the total load 
upon the bear¬ 
ing, divided by 
the product of 
the diameter of 
the journal into 
the length of the 
bearing. 

Let D be the 
diameter of the 
journal or shaft 
at its bearing, and L the length of the bearing, 
if W be the total load or pressure upon the bear¬ 
ing and P the pressure in pounds per square inch 
of bearing surface, then 

W 

P_ D X L 

The crank shaft bearings are usually set at an 
angle of 45 degrees, they should be heavy, of 
ample area, and readily adjustable. Outside 



FIG. 2 

Crank-shaft journal box for gas or oil 
engine, with wick-feed oiling device. 




12 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


bearings should be fitted to large engines where 
the crank shaft overhangs. The connecting-rod 
bearings should be made of phosphor bronze, 
and be made adjustable for wear. 

A rule followed by some manufacturers is to 
make the diameter of the crank shaft from one- 
third to one-half that of the cylinder diameter. 

Bearings, Heated. Heated bearings may arise 
from a variety of causes, such as: 

Bearings of insufficient surface for the load or 
strain put on them, engine running at too short 
centers with a tight belt, bad-fitting or sprung 
crank shaft, bearings screwed up too tight, in¬ 
sufficient lubrication, improper or poor oil, dust 
or dirt in the bearings, oil grooves too shallow or 
oil holes stopped, oil cups or lubricators becom¬ 
ing air-tight and preventing the proper flow of oil, 
from the engine being overloaded. 

Calorific or Heat Values of Fuels. Blast¬ 
furnace gas for operating large engines has come 
considerably into use. It is of low calorific 
value, and requires a high degree of compression, 
but as it is a waste product in most steel mills its 
use will be greatly extended in the near future. 

The calorific value of blast-furnace gas aver¬ 
ages about 100 British thermal units per cubic 
foot, and requires about lj times its volume of 
air for complete combustion. 

What is known as producer gas is now largely 
used in gas engines, and for large engines. When 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 13 

made under favorable conditions, undoubtedly a 
considerable economy is effected, as the cost is 
usually only about one cent per horsepower, while 
coal gas at 60 cents per thousand feet would 
amount to about 2 cents per horsepower. 

Producer gas is usually made from anthracite 
coal or coke, but a process has been introduced 
in which a superior quality of gas is made from 
bituminous coal, at the same time a large 
amount of sulphate of ammonia is obtained from 
the fuel, thus further reducing the cost of the gas. 

The calorific value of water gas averages about 
400 British thermal units per cubic foot. 

The calorific value of good coal gas is about 
650 British thermal units per cubic foot. 

The calorific value of producer gas is about 
150 British thermal units per cubic foot. 

The caloric value of gasoline gas averages 
680 to 710 British thermal units per cubic foot. 

Cams. The proper form of cam should give 
an easy lift to the valve and a longer time for the 

valve to remain fully open. 

To attain this object the lift of the valve and 
consequently the throw of the cam snould be 
about one-fifth more than is actually required 
with the ordinary form of cam, that is to say, 
the valve should lift more than the amount 
required for a full opening, or this additional 
amount of clearance should exist between the 
valve stem and the valve lifter. 


14 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


As the duty of a cam is to transfer rotary 
aiotion of the cam shaft into the necessary recip¬ 
rocating action required for lifting the valves, the 
quick opening and closing of the valves necessary 
in a four-cycle engine is more easily arrived at by 
means of a cam motion than otherwise. The 
valve is closed by a spring, the operation of 
opening the valve being performed by the cam 
only. 

The width of the face of the cam in contact 
with the roller may be ascertained by calculating 
the work to be done due to the pressure in the 
cylinder at the time of the opening of the valve, 
together with the area of the valve. When the 
inlet valve is mechanically operated the cam con- 
trolling its movement may be of less width than 
the exhaust valve cam, as atmospheric pressure 
only is present ’when it is in operation, as com¬ 
pared with the exhaust valve cam, which has to 
open the exhaust valve against a pressure some¬ 
times as high as 90 pounds per square inch, 
necessarily involving considerable strain. 

Cain Shaft Gearing. In the four-cycle gas or 
oil engine the valves are only operated during 
alternate revolutions of the crank shaft. This, 
therefore, requires some form of two-to-one gear. 
A form of spiral gear is well adapted for this work. 
The power necessary to operate the valves is, in 
this case, transmitted from the crank shaft by 
the worm or skew gearing through the cam 


•» 

GAS AND OIL ENGINE HaND-BOOK 15 

shaft, with separate cams opening the inlet and 
exhaust valves. Where spur gearing is used the 
cam shaft is mounted in bearings parallel to the 
crank shaft, the cams then operate horizontal 
rods which open the valves. 

Gas or oil engines having the valve operating 
mechanism located near the crank shaft usually 



FIG. 3 

Spur and spiral gear types of cam-shaft gearing. 


have the spur form of gearing to transmit the 
motion from the crank shaft to the cam shaft. 
Engines having the valve mechanism adjacent to 
the valve chamber generally have the spiral form 
of gearing for the above purpose. 

Figure 3 shows both forms of gearing, with 
the spur gear drive the shafts are parallel, wtuie 












16 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

*viL I i the spiral form the shafts are at right angles 
to each other. 

The left-hand view in the drawing shows the 
spur gear drive and that on the right hand the 
spiral form of gearing. 

Carburetors—Float Feed. All of the car¬ 
buretors used on automobiles, most of those used 
on marine engines, and many that are used on 
stationary engines are of the float feed auto¬ 
matic type. They are spray carburetors or 
vaporizers so far as projecting the mass of gas¬ 
oline directly into the ingoing current of air 
is concerned, and they obey all the laws for car¬ 
buretors of this class laid down in the following 
pages, but they differ from the simple carbu¬ 
retors which were described, in these particulars. 
They maintain a fairly uniform pressure head 
of gasoline by not permitting it to rise above a 
certain height in the reservoir, and they under¬ 
take to regulate the quality of the mixture at 
all speeds of the engine and under a wide range 
of varying conditions by maintaining the same, 
01 piactically the same degree of vacuum around 
the point of the spray nozzle. The means by 
which these two things are accomplished can 
best be explained in connection with Figure 4, 
which represents the main essentials of a float 
feed carburetor. 

Gasoline is delivered to the float chamber by- 
gravity from a tank placed a little above the 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 17 


cylinder of the engine. The float consists of a 
thin copper vessel closed on all sides with all 
joints carefully soldered to prevent any liquid 
from reaching its interior. 



Sometimes instead of using a metal float, a 
cork float is used. If cork is used it must be 
well shellacked to prevent it from becoming satu¬ 
rated with gasoline and losing its buoyancy. 
When so treated, however, it is very serviceable 
and will remain in good condition a long time. 
The metal float is a very good float as long as it 
remains tight. It may be good for years and it 
may develop a leak in a few weeks. A very 
small leak is much more troublesome, being 



























18 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


harder to find than a large one. In every case 
the function of the float is to operate a valve 
which admits gasoline into the float chamber. 
This may be accomplished in one of several 
ways. In Figure I the valve stem passes easily 
through the float. A grooved collar is secured 
near its upper end which affords a means of 

iu 

2 


—4 

O 

y> 



FIG. 5 


Valve attached to float. 


connection for a couple of weighted levers piv¬ 
oted at P. When the gasoline falls in the float 
chamber the float also falls, allowing the weights 
on the ends of the levers to drop and lift the 
valve V, thus admitting more gasoline. When 
the float rises it pushes up on the weights and 
forces the valve to its seat. 



































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 19 


Two other methods of arranging the float and 
valve appear in Figures 5 and 6. The arrange¬ 
ment of the float and its valve is so obvious in 
Figure 5 that no detailed explanation seems 


necessary. 

In the case of Figure 6, we have a cork float 
arranged in the form of a horseshoe, surround¬ 
ing the central air tube or mixing chamber. 


FIG. 6 



One style of automatic carburetor. 


-Fuel 

float. 


a Anviliarv air valve. B—Gasoline reservoir. D- 
TawTtap E-Needle valve. F-Horseshoe shaped 
G—-Gasoline supply. J—Float valve pivot. K—Throttle 

valve. T—Drain cock. 






























































20 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

In Figure 4 the grooved collar may be shifted, 
in Figure 5 the float itself can be set at the 
required height by shifting the nuts on the 
threaded valve stem, but in Figure 6 there is 

no way provided to change the position of the 
float. 

When the piston moves from the head end of 
the cylinder, the pressure of the gas behind it 
drops somewhat below atmospheric pressure. 
When it moves far enough so that the difference 
m pressure between the atmosphere and the gas 
inside of the cylinder is greater than the ten¬ 
sion of the inlet valve spring, then the latter 
will open and the charge will begin to enter the 
cylinder. The pressure in the inlet pipe, right 
close to the cylinder, is practically the same as 
in the cylinder, and gradually increases to prac¬ 
tically atmospheric pressure at the entrance. 

If the piston could be made to move to the 
crank end of the cylinder instantly, the reduc¬ 
tion in gas pressure would occur instantly, and 
the amount of reduction in the inlet pipe or 
carburetor would >be much greater than it ever 
is in practice. This would cause a very rapid 
rush of air past the gasoline nozzle and this with 
the help of atmospheric pressure on top of the 
gasoline m the reservoir would cause a more 
than usual flow of gasoline for the given quam** 
tity of air. In other words, the mixture would 
be very rich. This, of course, is the limiting 
condition in that direction, but it is easy to see 
that as we approach this condition in acW 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 21 

practice, by means of high speed we must find 
some way to bring the mixture back to its 
proper working composition. I his is accom¬ 
plished by means of what is called an automatic^ 
air valve as shown in Figure 4, which is held to 
its seat by means of a light spring. This spring 
is given a certain amount of tension and holds 
the valve shut until the pressure above the spray 
nozzle falls to a point where the tension of the 
spring is not sufficient to hold the valve shut. 
When this point is reached, air rushes through 
the auxiliary air port and to a certain extent at 
least corrects the quality of the mixture, first by 
diluting it with fresh air, and second by pre¬ 
venting too great a reduction of pressure m the 

mixing chamber. # - 

That certain defects exist in this method ot 

controlling the quality is freely admitted by 
everyone who is at all acquainted with the work¬ 
ing of carburetors. There is no uniformity m 
the process of mixing the air and the gasoline. 
The mixture is first made over-rich and then it 
is diluted a certain amount. At slow speeds the 
auxiliary valve does not open, consequently, 
from that point up to the point where it does 
work, the mixture is incorrect—not very much 
wrong, of course—but yet not quite right. 
Then at still higher speeds the mixture is made 
so very rich that enough air cannot pass through 
the auxiliary air port. 

The density of the air, its humidity and its 
temperature have an important bearing on the 



12 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

operation of the carburetor and make it difficult 
to construct one that is able to adjust itself to 
all conditions automatically, and produce a uni¬ 
form mixture. 



FIG. 7 

I loat feed type of carburetor, showing float-ehamber, mixing. 

tube and spray-feed. 

In many carburetors there is some device to 
provide for raising or lowering the level of the 

liquid in the float chamber by raising or lower¬ 
ing the float. 






















































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 23 

Figure 7 shows such a device. By depressing 
the small plunger M, on top of the float cham¬ 
ber, which is normally kept out of contact with 
the float by a spring, the carburetor may be 

flushed. 

Carburetor Adjustment. It is advisable 
before commencing a carburetor adjustment to 
grind in all the valves, especially the inlet, and 
to make certain after the grinding that the 
clearance between the valve stems and tappets is 
sufficient. The slightest leak through an inlet 
valve will play havoc with the mixture at slow 
speeds, for every time the cylinder with the 
leaky valve fires, a quantity of exhaust gas will 
leak into the inlet manifold and contaminate the 
mixture it contains. A curious point about this 
fault is that, while the cylinder with the leaky 
• valve may fire perfectly, it may cause one of the 
other cylinders to misfire at low speeds. A small 
leak is the more troublesome to locate, for a bad 
leak past an inlet valve will generally show itself 
by firing the mixture in the inlet pipe and car¬ 
buretor. . , . „ . , -I 

This must not be confused with the firing back 

due to too weak a mixture, which is due to the 
mixture burning so slowly that the residue in the 
. cylinder when the inlet again opens is. still 
alight, and fires the mixture being taken in. 

So important is this point of leaky inlet calves 
when tuning up a carburetor that it is advisable 
to remove the inlet manifold and test each valve 
separately with a smoking taper or a piece o 


24 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

smouldering paper, which will show up the 
slightest leak by the deflection of the smoke 
when the engine is cranked around. 

Carbureter Nozzle. Admittedly, the ideal 

mixture for use in gasoline engines is one in 
which a proper amount of fuel vapor is homo¬ 
geneously mixed with a proper amount of air. 
It is worthy of note in this connection that the 
mixture cannot be homogeneous in the proper 
sense of the term unless the fuel is present in 
the form of vapor. This state in the mixture 
is, of course, very difficult of attainment, but its 
desirability is beyond dispute. 

By far the greater portion of the weakness 
of the common “spraying” type carbureter is 
attributed to the ineffective way in which the 
nozzle presents the fuel to the air. The nozzle 
or orifice through which the fuel has its exit is 
usually spoken of as the “spraying” nozzle, but, 
in so far as the formation of any spray is con¬ 
cerned, this term, as applied to many of the 
individual nozzles m present use, is a misnomer. 
The use of this descriptive term is applied to 
these nozzles with about as much reason as some 
of the attempts at accomplishing aerial travel 
can be called “flying machines.” That is, it 
conveys an idea as to what is desired, rather 
than what is actually accomplished. 

A simple illustration of the effects of an ap¬ 
proach to homogeneity of mixture can be drawn 
from effects which have been noticed by all: 
Thus, if a pint of gasoline contained in a cylin- 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 25 

drical can without cover be ignited, it will re¬ 
quire a given time for its complete combustion. 
If, however, the same quantity of the fuel is 
poured into a shallow pan, such, for instance, 
as those commonly placed under cars while 
standing on the garage floor, very much less 
time will be required for complete combustion. 

The reason for the reduction in time for com¬ 
bustion in the latter case lies in the fact that a 
vastly greater surface of the fuel is in contact 
with the combustion supporting element, the 
oxygen of the air. 

In each of the three cases the same amount 
of fuel was burned and the same amount of heat 
liberated, but the work accomplished in expan¬ 
sion of the gases of combustion is widely differ¬ 
ent, and inversely proportional to the time re¬ 
quired for the combustion. 

The analogy with the above in a carbureter’s 
action, referred to the performance of the fuel 
nozzle, is obvious, since if fuel is discharged in 
a stream it will simply become spread over the 
surfaces and present but a relatively small sur¬ 
face to the air, with consequent slow combustion; 
but if it is discharged as a spray, in the proper 
sense of the term, it will present an enormously 
greater surface, and will more nearly cause the 
approximation of an ideally homogeneous mix¬ 
ture of vapor and air, with consequently acceler¬ 
ated combustion. 

Another point for consideration is the fact 
that if the fuel presents but a relatively small 


26 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

surface to the air, the combustion will not be 
so complete. It is thus seen that the finer the 
fuel division at the nozzle, the greater the gains 
on two scores—power development and fuel 
economy. 

Care of Gas or Oil Engines, Directions for 
tile. Keep plenty of fuel in the tank. 

Water sometimes gets into the fuel tank and 
when this reaches the engine it begins to explode 
irregularly. 

Sometimes the water will freeze in the fuel 
pipe and no fuel will come through. In this 
case, the pipes must be thawed out, which may 
be done without disconnecting, if the joints are 
all good and tight. There is no danger in apply¬ 
ing heat to the pipes unless they are leaking. 

Water in the fuel sometimes freezes on the 
inside, of the inlet-pipe. 

By removing the inlet-valve and applying a 
torch this can be safely thawed out. 

The water collects from condensation in the 
tanks and otherwise. 

One cause of obstructions in the inlet-pipe is 
the use of rubber or other soft gaskets. 

This should never be done, as they will soon 
become loose and pieces get stuck in the pipe. 
Use nothing but metal gaskets. A ground joint 
does not require any packing. 

Always use plenty of circulating water. 

Never allow the water in the tank to get lower 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 27 

than the upper pipe connection, as the water can¬ 
not circulate unless this pipe is kept covered. 

The lower water pipe and stopcock are liable 
to become clogged up when using dirty water, 
and it is well to see that they are kept clean. 

Should water passages between the cylinder 
head and the main water jacket become clogged 
up they can be cleaned out by removing the 
cvlinder head cover and scraping the passage with 

J 

an old file. 

If after an engine runs from fifteen to thirty 
minutes it becomes unusually warm, it is an indi- 
cation that the water is not circulating freely. 

If a gas or oil engine is working properly, it 
should run smoothly to the ear, without pound¬ 
ing either in the cylinder or bearings. The 
piston should work clean and be well lubricated, 
without any carbon or gummy deposit. The 
exhaust gases at the exhaust-pipe should be 
invisible or nearly so. The explosions should e 
regular and should be only reduced in pressure 
when the governor is reducing the volume of 
the charge and allowing only part or none of 

the charge to enter the cylinder. 

Cleaning a Gas or Oil Engine. This should 
be regularly and thoroughly performed at stated 
intervals, as should the carbonized oil be allowed 
to accumulate, a great loss of power may result. 
The whole engine should be taken to pieces, an 
the cylinder, piston, valves, governors and 


28 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

levers taken apart and thoroughly cleaned and 
adjusted. 

To remove the hard carbonized oil from the 
working parts copper tools should be used, and 
when the parts are thoroughly cleaned they 
should be rubbed over with kerosene. If nuts 
are set fast they should not be forced, but be 
loosened with kerosene. By using a little 
powdered plumbago and oil on the screw threads 
setting may be prevented. 

Combustion Chamber, Design of. A simple 

and exceedingly practical construction for a com¬ 
bustion and valve-chamber is shown in Figure 8. 

The inlet-valve is atmospheri¬ 
cally or suction operated, as 
shown in the drawing. The 
ignition plug is placed in the 
center of the end of the cyl¬ 
inder, which is cast integral 
or in one piece and is water- 
jacketed throughout. The 
combined combustion and 
valve-chamber is of funnel 
shape and affords a straight 
path for the passage of the 
gases without crooks or bends. 
Combustion Chamber, Dimensions of. If it 
is dtsiied to ascertain the cubic contents or 
dimensions of the combustion chamber of an 
existing engine, they may be found by filling the 



FIG. 8 













GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 2& 

combustion space with water, then obtaining the 

weight of the water in ounces, which multiplied 
& • 

by 1.72 will give the capacity of the chamber in 
cubic inches. If an engine is to be designed with 
a given bore and stroke, the first thing to do is 
to decide on the amount of clearance or combus¬ 
tion space at the end of the cylinder for the gases 

to occupy after compression. 

If the combustion space could be made as a 
continuation or extension of the cylinder bore, it 
would be an easy matter to determine the re¬ 
quired clearance, as it would simply be some 

fraction of the total piston stroke. 

But as the general design of a combustion 
chamber deviates widely from a plain section or 
length of a cylinder as above described, some 
other method must be used to calculate the 
required clearance. 

To do this correctly the required contents of 
the combustion chamber in cubic inches must 
first be ascertained, and then apportioned between 
the valve chamber or chambers and the clearance 
proper which lies directly behind the piston 

head. 

To find the cubic contents of a combustion 
chamber when the degree of compression in 
atmospheres is known: Let S be the stroke of 
the piston in inches and A the area of the pis¬ 
ton in square inches. If N be the number of 
atmospheres compression and C the required 


30 GAS AND OIL ENGINE ttAND-BOOK 

contents of the combustion in cubic inches, then 

^ __ S X A 

(N - 1) 

Example: Find the cubic contents of the 
combustion chamber for a motor of 8-inch bore 
and 10-inch stroke with 5 atmospheres com¬ 
pression. 

Answer: Ten multiplied by 50.26 equals 
502.6, which divided by 4 gives 125.6 as the num¬ 
ber of cubic inches required. 

Comparison of Gas and Steam Engines. 
The greater thermal efficiency of the gas engine 
.as compared with that of the steam engine and 
its adaptability to use the poorer and cheaply 
produced gases made in producer plants, as well 
as the gases given off from blast furnaces, has 
resulted in its development and manufacture in 
units as high as 10,000 horsepower. 

Until recently the gas engine, requiring no out¬ 
side gas-making apparatus, of 100 horsepower 
was probably the largest unit made. Gas en¬ 
gines up to 2500 horsepower are now being made. 

The production of great quantities of petro¬ 
leum in Texas and California chiefly useful for 
luel purposes only, and which can be procured 
at a low price as compared with illuminating oils, 
’ias enabled the oil engine in many locations to 
compete in cost of installation and price of fuel 
with the most economical types of steam engines. 



GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK SI 

There can be but little doubt that large mod¬ 
ern gas engines, using a good quality of producer 
or biast-furnace gas free from all impurities, 
compare very favorably on the score of economy 
with the steam engine. This arises from the 
cheapness of the fuel in the first place, from the 
superior calorific value of gas over steam, and 
the more efficient utilization of the heat in the 
gas engine. 

Comparison of Horizontal and Vertical En¬ 
gines. Accessibility of the parts in a horizontal 
engine is always considered a great advantage. 
The piston can always be seen and can be taken 
out of the cylinder and cleaned and replaced 
easily in this style of engine, while in a vertical 
engine it is necessary to remove the cylinder 
cover and sometimes the cylinder to gain access 
to the piston, and it is also necessary to have 
sufficient room above the top of the cylinder to 
lift the piston and connecting-rod out. The con¬ 
necting-rod is more accessible for adjustment 
both at the crank-pin end and at the piston end 
in the horizontal type. This difficulty, however, 
has been overcome by arranging a removable 
plug in the piston head, which when taken out 
allows access to the piston end of the connecting- 

rod. 

Vertical engines for places where space is re- 
striated and where sufficient head room is avail¬ 
able have the greater advantage of occupying less 


52 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

floor space than a horizontal engine. The 
mechanical efficiency of a vertical engine is, how¬ 
ever, somewhat greater, the friction of the piston 
being less than in the horizontal type of engine. 

Sometimes the vertical type of engine can 
only be used, but for ordinary uses the horizontal 
type of engine seems to be most in favor, one 
. important point being the difficulty of suitably 
ananging the carbureting or vaporizing devices 
in the vertical type of engine, which are usually 
placed.close to the cylinder, and are not so fully 
under the control of the attendant as in the hori¬ 
zontal engine. 

Comparison of Two and Four-cycle Gas 
Engines. Hhe trend in design of large-size gas 
engines using producer or blast-furnace gas is to 
the two-cycle principle of operation. Where the 
four-cycle principle is adhered to, two or more 
cylinders are necessary. As the four-cycle single- 
cylinder engine obtains an impulse only once' 
in two revolutions, consequently during three 
idle strokes of the piston the power and speed of 
the engine must be maintained by the momentum 
of the flywheels, necessarily enormous in an 
engine of 500 horsepower or over, for the power 
obtained, in comparison with the flywheel of a 
steam engine of the same capacity. With the 
two-cycle engine of large horsepower, in which 
an impulse is obtained each revolution of the 
cicOiK shaft, nearly double the power is said to 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 33 

be developed as compared with the four-cycle 
engine of the same size. The mechanical 
efficiency is increased, owing to the reduced 
weight of the flywheels, and the weight and cost 
of the engine per horsepower is reduced. 

The difficulty of procuring proper combustion 
in the two-cycle oil engine, where crude oil is 
used, has, however, not yet been entirely over¬ 
come. 

It may be stated that the larger size two-cycle 
engines, to compete with the four-cycle gas 
engine in cost of fuel, can do so only when a 
cheap grade of fuel is used. To use such fuel, 
it is imperative that proper combustion should 
take place in the cylinder. 

Compressed Air Starters. On account of the 
difficulty of starting large engines by hand, self¬ 
starters are used for engines over 10 to 12 horse¬ 
power, and a great variety of methods are in use. 
Compressed-air starters are simple and consist 
usually of a hand or power air pump, which 
forces air under pressure into a tank. 

The air tank is connected with the cylinder, 
and the flywheel being turned till the engine is 
in a position to start, that is when the crank is 
just-above the dead center, the compressed-air 
valve is then opened and kept open until the 
piston approaches the end of its stroke. ihis 
operation is repeated onee or twice, if necessary, 
to set the engine in motion. 


34 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


A number of devices are also in use, in which 
charges of gas and air are forced into the engine 
cylinder, and ignited by a separate and special 
device, the operation being repeated till the or¬ 
dinary ignition mechanism comes into play. 



FIG. 9 

Compressed air starter, showing air storage tank and drive from 
i line shaft to air compressor. 


Exhaust gases stored by the engine itself, under 
pressure in a reservoir, are also used. 

Figure 9 shows a gas or oil engine equipped 
with a compressed air starter. The air compres¬ 
sor is belt-driven from the line shaft. The stor¬ 
age tank, supply pipe to the engine and starting 
valve are plainly shown 


















































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 35 


Compression. Compression in the gas en¬ 
gine is one of the vital necessities in its succes- 
ful performance. An engine may continue to 
run on a light load under a very low compression 
without any noticeable effect so far as loss of 
power is concerned, but the moment a heavier 
load is put onto it there is trouble on hand, and 
the engine slows down, if it does not give up 

entirely. 

If, however, there is only a light load, the 
poor compression may not be suspected unless 
through trouble in starting, and possibly on ac¬ 
count of increased fuel consumption, when the 
•work performed is considered. This is one of 
the results of low compression; that is, fuel 
consumption is out of all proportion to the 
work handled by the engine. 


Low compression, or practically no compres¬ 
sion at all, is the result of bad cylinder, piston 
and ring construction, or of cracked, pitted, 
dirty or corroded valves, or a sticking of the 
valve stems in their seats, or of some worn or 
injured condition of some part that allows a 
pressure leak from the compression chambei. 

It is quite important to detect a leak and lo¬ 
cate its cause promptly, since considerable dam¬ 
age may result if it is allowed to go on un¬ 
checked for some time. 

A packed joint between the explosive cham¬ 
ber and the water jacket is a fruitful source of 
pressure leaks as well as water leaks into the 

cylinder. 


36 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

Compression, Advantages of. High, but not 

excessive, compression of the explosive charge, 
combined with complete combustion and expan¬ 
sion, are the most important factors in the eco¬ 
nomical working of gas and oil engines. 

With a high degree of compression the charge 
of gas and air becomes more homogeneous, is 
more rapidly ignited and. with greater certainty, 
consequently the combustion is more complete, 
and the force arising from the explosion of the 
charge greater. 

A smaller cylinder is required to give out the 
same power, and a weaker charge can be ignited. 
If, however, the compression be too great, pre¬ 
mature ignition will occur. 

If the engine loses its compression, it generally 
arises from a defective condition of the exhaust 
or inlet-valves, joints, or piston-rings. The 
valves should be taken out and carefully exam¬ 
ined, and if the valves do not fit properly in 
their seats, they should be carefully ground in 
with fine emery powder and oil, the emery being 
afterwards cleaned off with kerosene. 

If the valve stems are too tight, they should be 
eased with a smooth file. 

It is also very important that the degree Of 
compression be adjusted to suit the explosive 
qualities of the fuel used. 

Compression, How to Calculate. The com¬ 
pression in atmospheres of an engine may be 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 37 


readily found by dividing the cubic contents of 
the piston displacement by the cubic contents of 
the combustion chamber in cubic inches, and 
then adding one to the result. 

To ascertain the compression in atmospheres 
of an engine, when the cubic contents of the 
combustion chamber are known: Let S be the 
stroke of the piston in inches and A the area of 
the piston in square inches. If C be the con¬ 
tents of the combustion chamber in cubic inches 
and N the required compression in atmospheres, 
then 



Example: Find the compression in atmos¬ 
pheres of an engine of 4-inch bore and 6-inch 
stroke, whose combustion chamber has a capacity 
of 18 cubic inches. 

Answer: Six multiplied by 12.56 equals 75.36, 
which divided by 18 gives 4.19, and 4.19 plus 1 
equals 5.19, or the compression in atmospheres 
required. 

If it is desired to ascertain the compression in 
atmospheres of an engine, the combustion cham¬ 
ber of which is of such shape that its dimensions 
cannot be accurately calculated, its cubic contents 
may be found by filling the combustion chamber 
with water, and after removing the water, ascer¬ 
taining its weight in ounces, and then multiplying 
the result by 1.72. This gives the capacity of the 



38 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


combustion chamber in cubic inches. The com¬ 
pression of the engine can then be readily calcu¬ 
lated from the formula given herewith. 

Compression, How to Test for Leaks in. 
To discover if there are any leaks in the com¬ 
pression of a gasoline motor, a small pressure 
gauge reading up to at least 75 pounds should be 
screwed into the ignition tube opening or in any 
other suitable opening in the combustion chamber. 
When turning the motor flywheel slowly the 
gauge should indicate at least 70 pounds per 
square inch if the compression is in good condi¬ 
tion. 

To test for leaks, fill a small oil can with 
soapy water and squirt round every joint where 
there may he a possible chance for leakage. 
Get an assistant to turn the flywheel and watch 
for bubbles at the joints. 

If the joints are all tight, next examine the 
condition of the inlet and exhaust-valves, and if 
either of them needs regrinding it should be done 
with fine emery powder and oil. 

When the valves have been ground to a perfect 
fit, if the compression still leaks, the piston-rings 
should be examined, as the trouble will be found 
to be there. 

If there is a leakage by the piston, a hissing 
sound will be heard. This trouble may arise 
from badlv fitted or badlv worn piston-rinsrs, the 
cylinder scored from insufficient or improper 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


t 


lubrication, or the cylinder worn oval or out of 
round, or overheated from insufficient cooling. 

If the cylinder is worn, there is no remedy for 
it but reboring. 

Compression, Loss of. If an engine leaks 
compression it will not pull its full load, and 
does not start easily. By forcing the piston back 
against its compression it may be readily deter¬ 
mined whether it leaks or not. Examine both 
the inlet and exhaust-valves and see that they 
are fitting properly. Force them up and down a 
few times by hand to make sure they work freely. 

With the engine at rest, take hold of the fly¬ 
wheel and turn it backwards until the piston 
moves in on the compression stroke with consid¬ 
erable force and if there is no leak the engine 
should move forward one-half or a full revolu¬ 
tion, depending on the force with which it was 
driven in. 

If the valves or ignition tube should leak there 
would be no rebound. 

To find a leak in the packing, remove the 
piston from the cylinder and put a light inside. 

Turn on the water and by looking in, the leak 

may be located. 

Before replacing a gasket, scrape both surfaces 
clean. Use asbestos millboard soaked in oil. 

Put the gasket in place and draw it up tight. 

After the engine has become warm draw up 
the gasket several times until the joint is tight. 


40 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

Cooling' Systems. What is termed the cool¬ 
ing process, or cooling system, is one of the 
essentials and one which has been the subject 
of as much study and progressive development 
as any other connected with the operation of 
the engine. 

Inventive genius has not yet disclosed the 
secrets of any process by which all the heat 
energy generated in a gas engine cylinder can 
be utilized as motive power. An important 
percentage of it must be permitted to escape, 
and to accomplish the best results its escape 
must be hastened by absorption and radiation 
acting on the outer surface of the cylinder in 
which the combustion occurs. 

0 

It is only a few years since it was thought 
necessary to circulate water around the cylinder 
in sufficient quantity to keep the temperature of 
the overflow down to 150 degrees or lower. This 
required large storage tanks, or the consumption 
of large quantities of flowing water, and in 
v inter work was attended with great incon¬ 
venience and often considerable expense. 

\ 

Cooling the Cylinder. The process of keep¬ 
ing the heat of the walls and head of the cylin¬ 
der down to the proper temperature is called 
cooling the cylinder. 

It is not intended to make the cylinder cold, 
for a cold cylinder would absorb a great amount 
of the heat of the explosion. As it is the heat 
that does the work the object is therefore 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


41 


to turn the greatest possible per cent of it into 
useful work. 

The usual way of cooling the cylinder is to 
circulate a quantity of water around the cylinder 
and over the head, through a water jacket. This 
water space is generally cast as an integral part 
of the head and cylinder. 

The water must be made to circulate through 
this space or otherwise it would become very hot 
and the temperature of the cylinder walls would 
rise too high. 

This circulation may be obtained by a pump, 
or by the natural heat of the engine. If the 
water for cooling comes directly from a hydrant 
and is allowed to waste after passing through 
the jacket, care must be taken to admit only 
enough to properly cool the engine. 

An excessive supply of cold water pumped 
through the jacket will produce bad results. 

When natural circulation is used a water tank 
is used and placed so that the water level in the 
tank vail be higher than the engine cylinder. 
The tank is connected to the water space around 
the cylinder by two pipes, an inlet from the bot¬ 
tom of the tank to the lower part of the jacket 
and an outlet from the top of the cylinder to 
the upper part of the tank. 

As the water in the jacket becomes heated it 
rises through the outlet pipe to the top of the 
water level in the tank. As the heat radiates or 


42 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


leaves the surface the water becomes heavier and 
settles to the bottom of the tank. 

The same water is thus used over and over 
again with only a small loss by evaporation. The 
size of the tank must be in proportion to the size 
of the engine, it must hold enough water so that 
the hot water, coming from the engine,will have 
time to cool before it is needed again in the jacket. 

Oil, instead of water, is being used to a con¬ 
siderable extent by some manufacturers. A 
radiator or system of pipes is used when oil is 
employed and the circulation through the jacket 
is obtained similar to the processes just described 
for water, as the general principles of water 
and oil cooling are the same. As the oil will 
not freeze and burst the jacket a distinct advan¬ 
tage over water cooling is thereby gained. 

The next and last means of cooling the cylin¬ 
der is air cooling. 

The cylinder is made with radiating ribs or 
fins, usually cast on, from which the high heat, 
that passes through the cylinder walls, is radi¬ 
ated to the surrounding air. 

This form of cooling was first exploited in 
small bicycle engines with cylinders ranging from 
to 3j inches bore and stroke. Recently it i§ 
being used by automobile manufacturers to cool 
multiple-cylinder engines. 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 43 


Figure 10 illustrates three cooling systems. 
Three engines are shown, the one on the right 
being equipped with the familiar tank system, 
which is practical for stationary work in an en¬ 
gine protected from cold weather. The oil cool¬ 
ing system is shown in the center, w r ith its iron 
radiators, which is probably the most con- 



FIG. 10 


Three cooling systems. 


venient and compact method of connecting up 
the engine and cooling system on a single base. 
The open jacket system is shown on the left. 
This system is also compact and self-contained, 
and has been demonstrated to be efficient and 
adapted to all sizes of gas engines. 












44 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


Connecting-rods. Connecting-rods of gas 
and oil engines are of various shapes in cross- 
section, but those principally in use are made of 
steel with rectangular or circular section, with an 
adjustable bronze bearing at the crank-pin end. 

The crank-pin end bolts should be so propor¬ 
tioned as to have an area of at least 25 per cent 
of the mean cross-section of the rod. 

A connecting-rod of rectangular section, when 
made of steel, should have a cross-sectional area 
at least 30 per cent greater than the circular one. 
For a rectangular section the width of the rod 
should be at least one-third its mean depth. 

For small engines a good and cheap form of 
connecting-rod may be made of phosphor bronze 
or cast steel. 

Crank Shafts. The crank shaft of a gas or 
oil engine should be made of sufficient strength 
not only to withstand the sudden pressure due to 
the explosion, but also to withstand the strain 
consequent upon the greater explosive pressure 
which may possibly be caused by previous missed 
explosions. The crank shaft should be propor¬ 
tioned with relation to the area of the cylinder 
and the maximum pressure of the explosion. 

The mechanical efficiency of an engine may be 
gauged by the strength of the crank shaft, because 
if the crank shaft is not sufficiently strong, it will 
spring at each impulse, causing the flywheels to run 
out of true and also wear the bearings unevenly. 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 45 


The balancing of the crank shaft and recipro¬ 
cating parts is an important feature of a gas or 
oil engine. With a single-cylinder explosive 
engine, to perfectly accomplish the balancing is 
impracticable. Most manufacturers, therefore, 
only balance their engines as far as the recipro¬ 
cating parts are concerned. 

Balancing by means of a recess in the rim of 
the flywheel has the advantage of requiring no 
extra metal, and is cheaper as regards workman¬ 
ship as compared with the method of balancing 
the crank shaft by means of counterweights. In 
each of these methods, however, the flywheel 
itself is out of balance, and when rotating tends 
to make the crank shaft run out of true. 

As it is important that the crank shaft be of 
ample strength, it is the best practice to make it 
forged steel cut from the solid and finished 
bright all over. If the crank shaft be too weak, 
it will spring with the force of the explosions, 
thereby causing undue wear on the bearings. 

Cycles of Gas and Oil Engines. The four¬ 
cycle engine, having only one working stroke or 
imoulse during each two revolutions of the crank 
shaft,' consequently requires larger and heavier 
flywheels than a two-cycle engine in order to 
maintain a practically uniform speed and also to 
transmit the power during the idle strokes of the 
engine. 

The four-cycle engine has, however, many 



46 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


advantages over the two-cycle engine. The work¬ 
ing stroke or impulse is more readily controlled, 
and during the inlet and exhaust strokes a longer 
time is allowed for the cooling of the valves and 
the more thorough expulsion of the exhaust 
products from the cylinder than is possible with 
a two-cycle engine. 

In the two-cycle type of engine the charge must 
be independently compressed before entering the 
cylinder of the engine, in some two-cycle engines 
this is accomplished in a separate cylinder, but 
usually in the crank case of the engine. 

A greater quantity of lubricating oil and 
more cooling is required with a two-cycle than 
a four-cycle engine on account of the greater 
amount of heat generated in the same length of 
time. 

Six-cycle or scavenging engines have been 
largely used, in which after the termination of 
the exhaust stroke, a charge of air is drawn into 
the cylinder and the products of combustion thus 
entirely expelled. 

As such engines have only one working stroke 
or impulse to every three revolutions of the 
crank shaft, the cylinder and flywheel dimensions 
require to be greatly in excess of those of engines 
of the four-cycle type, necessitating greater floor 
space, increased weight, excessive wear and tear 
and greater complication of the valve-operating 
mechanism. 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 47 


Cylinders, Construction of. Cylinders made 
with a loose head require the joint to be made 
with great care. An asbestos or copper ring is 



FIG. 11 

Gas or gasoline engine cylinder, with detachable water-cooled 

head. 


used to make this joint, sometimes wire gauze 
with asbestos is used, which has been found to 
give very good results. 

Figure 11 shows a cylinder with a loose water- 
jacketed head in which both the inlet and exhaust- 



FIG. 12 

Gas or oil engine cylinder, with cylinder and head cast integral. 


vaives are located. This style ot cylinder has 
feet or lugs on either side to attach it to the bed¬ 
plate. 














48 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


A form of cylinder is shown in Figure 12 in 
which the cylinder and head are integral or cast 
in one piece, it has a separate valve-chamber 
(not shown) which bolts on the side of the cylin¬ 
der and communicates with the combustion 
chamber by a port or passage shown in the draw¬ 
ing. This style of cylinder is attached to the bed¬ 
plate by means of a circular sleeve which fits 
into an opening at the end of the bed-plate and 
is drawn up against the circular flange shown by 
means of bolts. 

Cylinder, Method of Boring a. A good way 
to bore a cylinder is to make a boring-bar to fit 
in the drill socket of a back-geared drill press 
and a brass or phosphor bronze bushing to fit in 
the center hole of the table of the drill press. 
The cylinder can be clamped to the table of the 
drill press by its flange and bored out with a 
cutter set in the boring-bar. Not less than three, 
and preferably four cuts, should be taken to 
make a good job. A mandril should then be 
made with two flanged hubs, one of which should 
be fastened to the mandril and the other turned 
slightly taper so as to make a snug fit in the 
cylinder bore when in place. The ends of the 
cylinder can then be finished on the mandril and 
a perfect job will be the result. In case a back- 
geared drill press is not handy the cylinder can 
be clamped to the carriage of the lathe, bored 
out with a bar in the lathe centers and the ends 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 49 


P’lished in the manner above described, but it is 
a much slower job than in a drill press. The 
cutter for the bar should be made from a piece 
of round tool steel not less than five-eighths of an 
inch diameter. It can then be readily adjusted 
to any desired angle to obtain the best cutting 
effect. 

Cylinder Sweating. Sometimes water will 
collect in the cylinder as a result of the interior 
walls of both the cylinder and cylinder-head 
sweating. This, however, does not often happen 
except on very warm days when a considerable 
volume of cold water has been allowed to flow 
through the water-jacket after the engine has 
been shut down, and this seldom applies where the 
thermo-syphon water-cooling system is used. It 
is more liable to happen where the cold water 
from a hydrant has been allowed to flow through 
the water-jacket. 





50 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

De La Vergne Type “FH” Crude Oil 

Engine. This engine operates on the four- 
stroke cycle and uses crude petroleum as fuel. 
It is built in sizes ranging from 150 H. P. to 
1200 H. P. While retaining the Diesel prin¬ 
ciple of self-ignition, it has the advantage of 
lower compression pressures due to the fact that 
at the end of the compression stroke and the 
beginning of the working stroke the atomized 
fuel, instead of being admitted directly into the 
cylinder, is projected into a separate, uncooled 
combustion chamber within which there exists, 
at the end of the compression stroke, an air 
pressure of 280 lbs., or 19 atmospheres. The 
compressed air necessary for fuel injection is sup¬ 
plied at the proper pressure by a two-stage air 
compressor driven by an eccentric on the main 

shaft. 

The air compressed by the first stage is stored 
in the starting tanks, which also act as a re¬ 
ceiver and intercooler between stages. Figure 
12 a shows a view of a twin cylinder type “FH” 
300 H. P. crude oil engine, in which the air 
compressor, governor and valve-operating me¬ 
chanism are all plainly outlined. The main 
piston is 21 inches in diameter by 52 inches in 
length, having a projected area of 1090 square 
inches and a maximum transverse pressure of 12 
lbs. per sq. in. The connecting rod is 106 inches 
in length. Piston rings are of a special cast 
iron, peened and ground so as to maintain a 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


51 


perfect cylindrical form. The pistons and cyl¬ 
inder liners are of the hardest cast iron, spe¬ 
cially treated to remove internal stress and thus 
avoid warping. The pistons are ground to mi¬ 
crometer dimensions. The wrist pins are case- 
hardened and ground. 



FIG. 12a 

300 H. P. twin cylinder, Type “FH” De La Vergne crude 

oil engine 

The inlet and exhaust valves are vertical, 
which arrangement has proven to be the most 
reliable. These valves are guided by dashpots 
on the end so as to reduce the wear on the stems. 
Both the inlet and exhaust valves are in remov¬ 
able cages, the exhaust valve cages being water- 
cooled. The replacement of pistons and liners 
constitutes the renewal of all the reciprocating 
wearing parts. The cam rollers and lever ful- 
crums are all equipped with bronze pins. All 
gears are arranged to run in an oil bath. The 






52 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


outboard bearing is arranged for adjustment 
by shims. 

Combustion Chamber. Figure 1 2b is a trans¬ 
verse section of the engine showing the con¬ 
struction of the combustion chamber, inlet and 



FIG. 12b 

Transverse section of De La Vergne crude oil engine, 
showing combustion chamber, inlet and exhaust 
valves, governor, etc. 

exhaust valves, the governor, and the fuel atom¬ 
izer, or spray valve. The combustion chamber 
appears in the left portion of the illustration 
directly opposite the spray valve. The com¬ 
bustion chamber is located on the side of the cyl¬ 
inder head, and leads directly from the clearance 
space between the two main valves. In starting, 
the combustion chamber is heated by a blast lamp 




GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


53 


during a period of from T to 15 minutes, but 
this heating is discontinued as soon as the engine 
has attained the proper speed, the combustion of 
the fuel then maintaining the chamber at the 
proper temperature. 

Governor. The governor is of the centrifugal 
type operated by worm gears from the lay shaft. 
The quantity of fuel passing to the spray valve 
is controlled by an overflow valve in the discharge 
line from the oil pump, the degree of opening of 
this valve being regulated by the governor. When 
the engine runs slightly above normal speed, the 
overflow valve is caused to open wide and pci mi t 
more oil to return to the stand pipe, or if the 
speed should slacken the governor closes the 
overflow valve, thus increasing the quantity of 
oil passed to the spray valve. It is claimed by 
the builders that the variations in speed do not 
exceed 2 per cent with ordinary variations of 
load. Figure 12c shows the construction of the 

governor and fuel pump. 

Fuel Control. The fuel is preferably stored in 

an underground tank outside of the building 
from which it is raised to a small filter stand 
pipe, by a rotary pump driven continuously by 
the engine. The action of, the pump keeps the 
stand pipe full and the surplus overflows and 
returns to the tank. From the stand pipe the 
oil is withdrawn by the feed pump on the engine 
and delivered to the spray valve. Here it comes 
in contact with the injection air and when the 
valve is opened the fuel is forced through a 


54 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 



FIG. 12c 

Governor and fuel pump 

chamber. It should be noted that the oil passes 
through three stages before ignition: 

1. Emulsified with air in spray valve. 

2. Atomized upon leaving spray valve. (On 


series of channels where it is thoroughly emulsi¬ 
fied before passing through to the combustion 


















GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


55 


account of the lower cylinder pressure each tiny 
bubble in the oil emulsion bursts as it enters.) 
3. Heavy particles impinge on hot surface 

and gasify. 

Starting and Stopping. The engine is started 
automatically by the admission of compressed 
air to the cylinders, this air being supplied from 



FIG. 12d 

Side elevation in section 

the air tanks previously referred to. For start¬ 
ing, it is only necessary to heat the combustion 
chamber, place the crank in starting position and 
open the air cock. A cam on the lay shaft then 
successively opens and closes the starting valve 
at the proper times. 

When combustion has commenced and the en¬ 
gine begins to gather speed, the air cock should 
be closed. To stop the engine, it is only neces¬ 
sary to cut off the supply of fuel. A side sec¬ 
tional elevation is shown in Figure l%d. 



56 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

Operation. To complete the cycle of opera¬ 
tion, tour strokes of the piston or two revolu¬ 
tions of the crank shaft are required. 

(a) Suction Stroke. —The first outward stroke 
is the suction stroke during which the air valve 
(above the combustion chamber), is opened by 
the valve rod and permits the charge of air to 
be drawn into the cylinder. 

(b) Compression Stroke. —The suction stroke 
is followed by the compression stroke, during 
which the air valve is closed, and the charge of 
air only is compressed into the combustion space. 
At or near the end of the compression stroke, 
when all the air is compressed into the combus¬ 
tion chamber, the crude oil fuel, now churned to 
an emulsion by the injection air, plunges as oil 
mist through the confined charge of heated air, 
and an instant later the heavier particles, strik¬ 
ing the hot walls of the combustion chamber, 
gasify and ignite the entire charge. 

(c) K orking Stroke. —A perfect mixture 
has been made by the light particles and ignited 
by the heavier particles as they impinged on the 
hot surface of the vaporizer. The combustion 
takes place at once and the resulting gas ex¬ 
pands into the cylinder, forcing the piston for¬ 
ward on its working stroke. 

(d) Exhaust , or Scavenging Stroke. —Near 
the end of the working stroke, the exhaust valve 
(below the combustion chamber) is opened, the 
gas escapes and the piston, on its return stroke, 
expels completely the burnt charge. 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


57 


Fuel Consumption ,—For the type “FH” en¬ 
gine fuel consumption does not exceed the fol¬ 
lowing quantities of any crude oil, distillate or 
fuel oil produced in the United States or Mexico* 
the power to be measured on the engine shaft 
and the fuel to have a lower heat value of not 
less than 18,000 B.T.U. per pound containing 
not over 1 °/e of water. These guarantees are 
made irrespective of the gravity of the fuel or of 
its sulphur content. 

Full load—0.5 lbs. per brake horsepower hour. 

Three-quarter load—0.5 lbs. per brake horse¬ 
power hour. 

One-half load—0.57 lbs. per brake horsepower 
hour. 

“Gas House Tar,” which is the residual by¬ 
product in the manufacture of illuminating gas, 
can also be used satisfactorily in the De La 
Vergne engine. Some of these engines aie being 
operated continuously on this fuel, and when op¬ 
erated at from three-fourths load to full load 
they have a fuel consumption of not over 0.65 lbs. 
per B H.P., provided the tar has a lower heat¬ 
ing value of not less than 17,000 B.T.U. per 
pound, and does not contain over two per cent 
of water. An oil consumption of less than 0.4 
lbs. per B.H.P. per hour has been more than 
once recorded. One of the tests on record shows 
a consumption as low as 0.374 pounds of od per 
B.H.P. per hour. 

Twin Cylinder Type “D.H.” Oil Engine. This 
engine, a view of which is shown in Figure 12e, 


58 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

is the latest type of the De La Vergne oil engine. 
It is designed especially for the use of low grade 
fuels, and is equipped with a separate uncooled 
vaporizer chamber, shown in section in Tisrure 

_ O 

ISjT. The action of this vaporizer is as follows: 
The atomized fuel is injected against the hot 



FIG. 12e 

Twin cylinder type “DH” oil engine 


vaporizer walls, producing instantaneous and 
complete combustion, and as the oil is kept out 
of the cylinder, only the expanding gases come 
in contact with the piston and cylinder walls. 
This is an advantage when compared with the 
injection of coarse and impure fuels directly 
into the cylinder. The vaporizer has a large 
heated area, thus making the use of high pres- 
suies in the combustion chamber unnecessary. 
The pressure need not exceed 150 lbs. per sq. in. 






GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


59 


Lubrication .—Two systems of lubrication are 
used on the De La Vergne engine, the individual 
system, and the continuous gravity system. With 
either system the cylinder lubrication is by force 



FIG. 12f 

Cross section through vaporizer 


feed. Since the cylinder, air compressor and 
valve stems must be lubricated with a special oil, 
these are kept separate from the bearing lubri¬ 
cation. 

With the individual system the main bearings 



























60 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


are lubricated with ring oilers by which the oil 
is carried from the cellars to the top of the shaft 
and passing through the bearings, returns to the 
cellars. The crank pins are lubricated by a cen¬ 
trifugal ring oiler, fed from a cup, and the wrist 
pin and eccentric likewise obtain their lubricant 
from cups with sight feeds. With this system a 
De La Vergne settling tank may be profitably 
employed. The oil caught in the frame is depos¬ 
ited in it from day to day until filled, when clean 
oil may be drawn from the proper compartment. 

Cooling Water. The cooling water required 
for this engine is at full load approximately only 
thiee gallons per brake horsepower per hour. 

This water may be discharged at a temperature 
of 180° Fahr. 

In locations where water is costly or difficult 
to obtain, this feature is of great value, as a 
water-cooling device of the simplest and most 
inexpensive character allows the circulating water 
to be used again and again with the addition of 
only about five percent of “make-up” water. 

Deep WeU Pumping Plants. A deep well 
pumping plant operated by a gasoline engine 
through a single reduction gearing is illustrated 
in Figure 13, the pump is of the single-acting 
type and is connected to the reduction gear by 
means of a pitman-rod with a forked lower end. 

Such plants are also used for draining mines 
and quarries. 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


61 

















































































































































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


62 


Design of Gas and Oil Engines. Gas and 

oil engines should be of substantial design in 
order to withstand the continual shock and vibra¬ 
tions to which they are subject, and should be as 
accessible as possible in the working parts, which 
may require adjustment while in actual service. 
The starting gear and other parts to be handled 
by the attendant when starting and running the 
engines should be placed in close proximity to 
each other. 

Simplicity in construction is the essentlial fea¬ 
ture of a gas or oil engine. The oil engine is a 
machine intended for use in any part of the 
w r orld where its fuel is obtainable, and where, 
perhaps, no mechanic is available. Accordingly, 
all the mechanism should be arranged so as to 
be easily removed for examination and repair. 
The igniting device, as well as the carbureter or 
vaporizer, should be so designed as to facilitate 
removal and repair. A gas or oil engine, to be 
successful mechanically and commercially, should 
be so designed that it can be successfully oper¬ 
ated, cleaned and adjusted by unskilled attend¬ 
ants. 


i 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


63 


Diesel Oil Engine. This is an internal com¬ 
bustion engine which takes its fuel, crude low 
grade fuel oil or the residues from oil refining, 
directly into the cylinder and there converts it 
into energy. This engine is now built in both 
the four-stroke cycle, and the two-stroke cycle 
styles. Vaporization of the oil takes place within 
the cylinder itself, where the pressure of com¬ 
pression is carried sufficiently high to cause com¬ 
bustion of the fuel. The oil is injected through 
a valve at the top of the cylinder, which is ver¬ 
tical, and as the fuel enters the cylinder after 
the period of compression, about 600 pounds 
pressure per square inch is required for the in¬ 
jection. This pressure is supplied by an inde¬ 
pendent air compressor. The air necessary to 
support combustion is introduced through an 
air inlet valve. 

Figure 1 3a represents cross-sections of the 
working cylinder and head of a stationary two 
stroke motor. The arrangement of slots in the 
cylinder wall, through which the exhaust gases 
leave the working cylinder, as the piston comes 
near the low T er dead point, is, of course, a typical 
feature of two-stroke motors. This arrange¬ 
ment is an undoubted advantage over four-stroke 
motors, which discharge their exhaust gases 
through valves. The admission of sca\ engmg 
and charging air is affected through four valves, 
arranged symmetrically in the cylinder head. 

As seen from Figure 13$, the piston compuses 
at its upper end a cooling compartment, pistons 


64 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

above a given size having to be cooled with 
water or oil. Telescoping tubes through which 
a water jet in free contact with air is projected 
directly against the bottom of the piston serve 



FIG. 13a 

Sectional view of Diesel two-stroke cycle engine 


to admit and carry away cooling water, an ar¬ 
rangement which avoids any stuffing boxes. 

It is true that the two-stroke process entails 
the use of a special scavenging pump to dis¬ 
charge the exhaust gases. Four-stroke motors, 
which are more simple from a constructive point 
of view, are therefore generally preferable for 




















































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


65 


small and medium installations. In connection 
with large units, the addition of an air pump, 
however, is of much less importance, the more 
so as the pump discharging the scavenging air 
works at very low pressures and accordingly 
under extremely favorable conditions. On the 
other hand, the reduction in weight is of para¬ 
mount importance for large units, the frames, 
bases and flywheels of large four-stroke motors 
being so heavy that their transportation and 
erection entail serious difficulties. 

The two-stroke Diesel motor resembles the 
four-stroke type as far as its outside arrange¬ 
ment is concerned. The cylinders are likewise 
vertical; their jackets are cast of one piece with 
the frame, the working cylinders are encased and 
the piston is designed as crosshead. Apart from 
the air compressor, which serves to introduce 
fuel oil into the cylinder and to start the engine, 
two-stroke motors comprise a scavenging air 
pump arranged, in accordance with local con¬ 
ditions, in the basement or above the floor. The 
scavenging air valves, like the other valves, are 
arranged in the cylinder head. The exhaust 
valves are, however, replaced by slots in the 
working cylinder and the fuel supply is regulated 
automatically in accordance with the load on the 
engine. All motors of this type have an attach¬ 
ment for changing speed during operation. 

Figure 13b shows a cross-section through a 
directly reversible Sulzer-Diesel marine engine, 
which has likewise been designed as two-stroke. 


66 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


In connection with large units the special regu¬ 
lation developed by the constructors would seem 



FIG. 13b 

Section of Diesel two-stroke marine engine 


to deserve more than passing notice. These en¬ 
gines are thus in a position to deal with any 
sudden fluctuations in load with least variation 
in speed and at the same time can be readily 




































































































/ 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 67 

connected up in parallel with any other prime 
movers of the same or any different type, such 



as steam engines, gas motors and water tur¬ 
bines. The working of the regulator will be 
understood by referring to Figure 13c. 

The governor controls, in accordance with its 









































































68 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


adjustment, all the factors on which the output 
of the engine depends. These factors in the 
case of Diesel motors are the amount of fuel 
injected, the amount and pressure of the injec¬ 
tion air required for vaporizing and injecting 
the fuel, as well as the variable admission of the 
vaporizer valve in accordance with the amounts 
of air and fuel. The amount of fuel, as well 
as the amount of pressure of the injection air 
are adjusted for directly from the regulator. 
The regulation of the amount of injection air 
in the present instance is effected by adjusting 
a slide fitted into the suction conduit of the first 
stage of the injection air pump. The adjust¬ 
ment of the duration of opening of the fuel 
valve, on account of the valve resistance, how¬ 
ever, requires much more energy, so that the 
action of the regulator itself would not be suf¬ 
ficient. A pilot valve S has therefore been pro¬ 
vided, which is operated by the pressure from 
one of the stages of the injection air pump. 
In the present instance the pressure obtaining 
between the first stage 1, and the second stage 
Jc, of the injection pump is used for this pur- 
the conduit u serving to transmit this pressure 
to the pilot valve S. 

I^nition and Combustion .—The action taking 
place within the cylinder of a Diesel engine may 
be briefly explained as follows: The oil fuel is 
injected through the fuel valve located in the 
top of the cylinder which is vertical. This valve 
is opened by a cam just before the piston has 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


6.9 


reached its top center and the injection of the 
fuel oil then commences and continues until the 
piston, after passing the top dead center, has 
moved through about 10 per cent of its down¬ 
ward stroke. 

Owing to the high pressure now prevailing 
in the combustion chamber, which is that portion 
of the cylinder space above the piston, a tem¬ 
perature is produced which exceeds the ignition 
point of the fuel oil and as a result, the oil 
having entered the cylinder in an extremely pul¬ 
verized state, is at once ignited and is combusted 
under approximately constant pressure. 

This pressure is maintained in two ways, first, 
by the compression pressure exerted by the pis¬ 
ton on its up-stroke; second, by the admission 
of compressed air under a pressure exceeding 
that of compression; this air being required for 
the injection of the charge of fuel oil. 

The pressures usually required for the injec¬ 
tion of the fuel oil into the combustion chamber 
of a Diesel engine range from 450 to 600 lbs. 
per sq. in., depending upon the style or make 
of the engine, and also upon local conditions. 
This supply of compressed air is obtained from 
one or more high pressure air compressors, usu¬ 
ally driven from the mam cross-head of the en¬ 
gine by means of links and beams. The air 
compressor is of the tandem compound type, 
two or three stage, the low pressure stage being 
double acting, while the intermediate and high 
pressure stages are single acting. 


70 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

• 

Cooling coils are provided for each" stage. 
The piston and discharge valves of the low press¬ 
ure stage are of the flat disk type, while those 
of the higher stages are of the poppet type. 
The high pressure air is delivered to a pipe, 
common to all the cylinders of the engine. This 
pipe conveys the air through separators to the 
spray-air bottle from whence it leads to the fuel 
inlet valve bodies in the cylinder heads. The 
number of cylinders in the ordinary Diesel engine 
is four. In some cases there are six. 

Starting a Diesel Engine. In starting an 
engine of the two-cycle type, compressed air 
at a pressure of about 650 lbs. per sq. in is 
admitted to those cylinders whose cranks are 
in the proper position for running in the desired 
direction. 

After the engine begins to turn, starting air 
from a receiver in connection with the spray 
air bottle is admitted to each cylinder from 10 
degrees past the top center, to 85 degrees past 
the top center until the engine has attained suffi¬ 
cient speed for fuel admission. 

Just before fuel admission occurs clean air 
from the scavenging receiver has been com¬ 
pressed in the working cylinders to about 450 
lbs. pressure per sq. in., and when the engine 
is running normal, fuel admission to each cylinder 
occurs as follows: When the piston on the up¬ 
stroke is within %y 2 degrees of the top center 
the fuel admission valve opens and remains open 
until the piston has reached a point 3T y 2 degrees 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


71 


past the top center, when the valve closes and 
combustion occurs. The exhaust ports in the 
two-cycle engine are uncovered 35 degrees be¬ 
fore the piston has reached bottom center. At 
a point 2}4 degrees before the exhaust ports 
staid: to be uncovered, two scavenger valves in 
the cylinder head are opened by the camshaft 
admitting fresh air at 7 or 8 lbs. pressure to 
the cylinder for scavenging. 

The exhaust ports are again covered by the 
piston at 35 degrees past bottom center and 
compression begins. 

The scavenger valves remain open until 31 Y 
degrees after the exhaust ports are closed by 
the piston on its up-stroke. From this point 
compression takes place until 2/4 degrees be¬ 
fore top center is reached, when the fuel valve 
again opens. 

Speed .—The speed is regulated by the con¬ 
trol of certain factors in connection with its 
operation, as, for instance, the amount of fuel 
injected, the amount and pressure of the com¬ 
pressed air required for vaporizing and inject¬ 
ing the fuel; also the variable admission of fuel 
hv the vaporizer valve in accordance with the 
amounts of air and fuel. The two latter fac¬ 
tors are adjusted directly from the regulator. 
The air pressure supply is controlled by ad¬ 
justing a slide fitted into the suctions of the 
low stage cylinders of the air compressor. The 
quantity and pressure of the spray or injection 
air is thus easily regulated. The duration of 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 



FIG. 13d 

Section through scavenger compressor 
Two-cycle Diesel oil engine 




















































































































































































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


73 


opening of the fuel valve is adjusted by the 
action of the regulator in conjunction with the 
pilot valve which is operated by the pressure 
from one of the stages of the air compressor. 
A centrifugal type of governor is used to effect 
this regulation. 

Diesel Marine Type .—Figures 1 3d and ISe 
show sections through the principal working 
parts of a large marine engine of the Diesel 
type. The engine will develop about 2500 H. P. 
at 130 R.P.M. and is of the two-stroke cycle, 
six-cylinder crosshead design. Referring to 
Figure 13d it will be seen that the scavenging 
pumps are mounted on the outboard columns of 
the even-numbered cylinders and are driven by 
links and beams from the main crossheads. Each 
scavenging compressor is double-acting and 
draws the air from both sides of the piston 
through the outboard side of the scavenging 
cylinder and then through 12 flat-disk suction 
valves, six for the top and six for the bottom 
of the compressor. The air, after compression 
to about 8 lbs., passes through 12 discharge 
valves and two coolers to the receiver. The 
suction and the discharge valves are assembled 
in six units, each consisting of two suction and 
fwo discharge valves mounted on one stem. By 
removing the valve bonnets the valve units are 
readily accessible and easily removed. 

Directly under each scavenging compressor 
and driven by the same crosshead are two pumps. 
These supply fresh water for cooling the pistons, 


74 


\ 

GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 



FIG. 13e 

Section through cylinder and air compressor 
Two-cycle Diesel oil engine 




























































































































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


75 


lubrication for the main crankpin crosshead and 
thrust-block bearings, salt water for cooling all 
the engine parts except the pistons and service 
for bilge and sanitary systems. 

The high pressure air compressors are mount¬ 
ed on the outboard columns of the odd-numbered 
cylinders and are driven from the main cross-head 
by links and beams, as will be seen by reference 
to Figure 13e. 

A small fuel-oil supply pump is attached to 
the No. 1 outboard column and is driven by the 
beam. This maintains the fuel supply from the 
ship’s bunkers to the engine-room tank. The 
fuel-oil-measuring or cylinder supply pumps are 
six in number, one for each cylinder. Two are 
contained in one body, and all the pumps are 
driven by eccentrics from the main camshaft. 
Each fuel pump has a mechanically operated suc¬ 
tion valve and two discharge valves in series. 
The speed and power of the engine are con¬ 
trolled by varying the period of opening of the 
suction valves and therefore the quantity of fuel 
pumped to each cylinder. 

Structural Details .—Concerning the struc¬ 
tural details, the engine bedplate is in three cast- 
iron sections bolted together, each section con¬ 
taining three main bearings consisting of a flat- 
bottom castiron piece supported in the bedplate 
saddle, a lower main bearing, brass, cored for 
water circulation and capable of being rolled out 
of the saddle without the removal of the crank- 


76 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

shaft, and a flat-topped upper bearing of brass, 
cored out for stiffness and lightness. 

The binding cap is of forged steel and the 
bearing brasses are lined with a white metal con" 
sisting of 80 per cent tin, 15 per cent antimony, 
and 5 per cent copper. This metal is somewhat 
harder than the Navy Standard bearing metal. 
The main crankshaft is in three interchangeable 
sections, approximately 15}4 inches in diameter, 
and is made of special forgings having a tensile 
strength of 71,000 to 78,000 pounds, with an 
elongation of 18 to 20 per cent. The sections are 
bored hollow and drilled for the forced lubrica¬ 
tion system. The sequence of cranks (turning 
outboard), are numbers 6, 1, 4, 5, 2 and 3. The 
piston rod, as will be seen from Figure 13^, is 
forged steel and is bored hollow for the passage 
of the fresh cooling water to and from the work¬ 
ing piston. 

Piston .—The piston is divided into two parts 
—the working piston, which consists of a special¬ 
ly lined casting cored for water circulation and 
ribbed for strength, and a lower iron casting, 
which is bolted to the piston rod. The two sec¬ 
tions are not bolted to each other, although both 
are secured to the rod. The working piston is 
dished on top and is machined with greater clear¬ 
ance at its top than at its bottom. It carries 
six cast-iron snap rings varying in width from 
the top to the bottom, the upper rings being 
given more clearance than the lower ones on 
account of the greater heat. The lower part 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


77 


of the main piston merely serves as a guide and 
has two cast-iron snap rings at the bottom to 
prevent the escape of gas into the engine room. 

Fresh water coming up from the rod enters the 
central compartment of the piston, passes out 
toward the side through cored passages at the 
top of the piston and finally the concentric 
space in the piston rod through four pipes set at 
45 degrees, returning from the highest point 
of the water space and thus insuring a flow 
of water along the hottest parts of the piston. 
This method of conveying the cooling medium 
to and from the piston has the advantage of 
simplicity, but it also has the disadvantage of 
heating the water entering the piston by that 
just leaving the piston, and vice versa. 

The fresh cooling water is drawn from a 
compartment in the double bottom, where it is 
cooled, to the piston, through a swivel joint on 
the after beam bearing, a pipe secured to the 
beam, another swivel joint on the crosshead end 
of the beam, the main crosshead, a nickel-steel 
pipe running up the center of the piston rod, 
and four collecting pipes reaching the highest 
part of the outer cooling space in the piston, as 
previously explained. From the piston rod the 
hot water reaches a discharge main back of the 
engine via links and beams, and the forward end 
of the crosshead, in a manner similar to that of 

entering. 

A small copper pipe leading from the dis¬ 
charge side of each piston is led to the inboard 


78 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


side of column No. 2, where it delivers through 
a small pet-cock into a funnel. This affords the 
operator an opportunity to see at a glance 
whether the system is functioning properly, and 
he can also feel the temperature of the cooling 
water. 

Cylinder .—The main cylinder is made up of 
two parts—a cast-iron jacket carrying the ex¬ 
haust belt and a plain cylindrical liner of spe¬ 
cial cast iron. The space between the cylinder 
jacket and the liner forms the water jacket for 
the salt cooling water. The top of the liner is 
securely held in place by the cylinder head, while 
the lower end is free to expand through the 
stuffing-box in the bottom of the jacket, which 
prevents salt-w T ater leakage. The surface of 
the liner passing through the tight fit at the 
exhaust belt has several shallow grooves, whose 
object is to collect any slight water leakage. The 
grooves are about one-quarter inch deep and 
one-half inch wide, and are connected to pet- 
cocks on the outside of the cylinder jacket. These 
are kept open and act as leak indicators. 

The cylinder head is bolted to the cylinder 
by 12 studs, the joint between the head and 
the liner being made tight by a thin copper 
gasket. The head has five openings to receive 
the valve cages. The center one is for the fuel 
valve, the two largest openings on either side 
are for the scavenging valves; the inboard open¬ 
ing is for the cylinder-release valve, and the out¬ 
board opening is for the air-starting valve. The 



GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


79 


water from the cylinder jacket is bypassed around 
the cylinder-head joint into the lower compart¬ 
ment of the head, through which it must all go 
before rising to the upper compartment. A cast- 
steel sleeve in the center of the head receives the 
spray-valve body. 

The fuel-spray valve located in the center of 
the head consists of a cast-iron body, housing a 
long forged-steel needle valve opening upward. 
This valve is opened by the camshaft and is ordi¬ 
narily held shut by heavy springs. The com¬ 
pressed air for fuel injection is connected to the 
valve body at the top and maintains a constant 
pressure in the body, there being a safety valve 
in the air line at each cylinder. 

The camshaft is on the inboard side of the 
engine and is in four sections, the first section 
carrying the cams for cylinders Nos. 1 and 2; 
the second the governor, the cam for cylinder 
No. 3 and an eccentric for driving the fuel pump 
for cylinders Nos. 1 and 2; the third carries the 
cam for cylinder No. 4 and the gear that tians- 
mits the motion of the vertical shaft to the cam- 
. shaft; and the fourth carries the cams for cylin¬ 
ders Nos. 5 and 6. 

The high-pressure air system consists of the 
three attached air compressors, the spray flask of 
about 5 cu. ft. capacity, the six starting-air 
flasks with a capacity of about 180 cu. ft., ail 
separators, piping, release valves, etc. One aux¬ 
iliary air compressor independently driven by 
steam, with a capacity equal to that of one of 


/ 


80 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


the attached air compressors, is also provided 
for charging the spray and starting flasks when 
all the air is gone. 

The salt-water cooling system consists of two 
attached plunger pumps under the middle scav¬ 
enger pump and an independently driven steam 
plunger pump, together with the necessary con¬ 
nections and piping. Both attached pumps have 
a common suction, and each is of sufficient capac- 
ity to supply the salt-water system at normal 
power. The salt water is discharged into a large 
main at the back of the engine beneath the floor- 
plate, from which a branch leads upward to the 
bottom of each intercooler for the high-pressure 
air compressors, and to the bottom of each cooler 
in the scavenger-pump castings. The main then 
continues around the forward end of the engine, 
where a branch leads upward on the outboard 
side of the main bearing cap. Continuing around 
to the inboard side of the engine under the floor- 
plate the main supplies a branch to the bottom 
of each ahead crosshead guide. A collecting main 
runs around the engine at the height of the cyl¬ 
inder base. On the inboard side it receives the 
return cooling water from the crosshead guides,- 
and at the after inboard side it receives the return 
cooling water from the main bearing and thrust 
block. On the outboard side of the engine it 
receives the cooling water from the scavenger 
cooler. 

Back of the engine all the water in the col¬ 
lecting main enters the bottom of the main cyl- 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


81 


inder jackets, two branches leading to each 
jacket. The cooling water leaving the high- 
pressure intercoolers of each compressor is led 
to the lower end of the jacket of the middle- 
stage air-compressor cylinder. From here it is 
forced upward into the jacket of the low-stage 
cylinder through two ferrules set partly into 
each cylinder at the joint. From the low-stage 
jacket the water enters the high-stage jacket 
through two by-passes around the cylinder joint, 
and from the high-stage jacket the water is 
forced into the high-stage cylinder head to two 
bypasses around the joint between the head and 
the cylinder. From the head of each high-stage 
cylinder the water is led into the exhaust-pipe 
jacket. From the main cylinder jacket the w T ater 
enters the cylinder head through a bypass around 
the joint between the cylinder and the head. 
After circulating through the lower and upper 
compartments of the head, the water enters the 
exhaust-pipe water jacket, and from here is finally 
discharged into an overhead discharge main. 

Operation .—On the operator’s platform is the 
maneuvering control wheel, which controls the 
starting, stopping and reversal of the engine by 
means of compressed air. This wheel also cuts 
off the fuel and spray air from the cylinders 
during maneuvering and until the engine is turn¬ 
ing over in the desired direction. Above the 
maneuvering control is a dial on which a pointer 
indicates the running position of the engine. 

On the forward side of No. 4 column is the 


82 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

fuel-control wheel, which governs the quantity 
of fuel pumped into each cylinder. The pointer 
and dial above the fuel control indicate in eight 
equal steps the quantity of fuel pumped, from 
a minimum to the maximum. Coming out from 
the shaft of the fuel-control wheel is the needle- 
stroke control which varies the stroke of the fuel- 
spray needle from maximum to minimum. 

On the after side of column No. 3 is a hand 
cutout by which the engine can be instantly 
stopped. It operates to raise the suction valves 
of the fuel pumps, thus rendering them inoper¬ 
ative. Below this is the control for the high- 
pressure air supply, which regulates the opening 
of the suctions of the low-stage cylinders of the 
air compressors. The quantity and the pressure 
of the spray air is thus controlled. 

Dry Batteries. In one respect dry bat¬ 
teries have a decided advantage over liquid bat¬ 
teries for ignition purposes, from the fact that on 
account of their high internal resistance they can¬ 
not be so quickly deteriorated by short circuiting. 

On account of the high internal resistance, dry 
batteries will not give so large a volume of curr 
rent as liquid batteries, but a set of dry batteries 
may be short circuited for five minutes without 
apparent injury and will recuperate in from 
twenty to thirty minutes, while a liquid battery 
would in all probability be badly deteriorated 
under the same conditions. 

A dry battery of the usual type consists of a 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK §3 

zinc cell which forms the negative element of the 
battery. The electrolyte is generally a jelly-like 
compound containing sal-ammoniac, chloride of 
zinc, etc. The carbon or positive element is 
enclosed in a sack or bag containing dioxide of 
manganese and crushed coke, which are the 
depolarizing agents of the battery. 

Dynamometer. A dynamometer is a form of 
equalizing gear which is attached between a 
source of power and a piece of machinery when 
it is desired to ascertain the power necessary to 
operate the aforesaid machinery with a given rate 
of speed. 

Efficiency, Mechanical. The mechanical 
efficiency of a gas or oil engine depends on its 
design, workmanship and proper lubrication, and 
also on: 

The proper mixture of air and fuel. 

The correct degree of compression. 

The correct point of ignition. 

The duration and completeness of combus¬ 
tion. 

; The rapidity and amount of expansion. 

Efficient governing and free exhaust. 

If any doubts exist as to the engine giving out 
/ts proper power, a brake test should be made. 

To ascertain the mechanical efficiency* of a ga.* 
or oil engine, both indicator and brake horse¬ 
power tests should be made, and if I.H.P. be 
the indicated horsepower and B.H.P. the actual 


84 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


of brake horsepower of the engine and M.E. be 
its mechanical efficiency, then 


M.E. 


B.H.P. 

I.H.P. 


If the brake horsepower of an engine be 7.5 
and the indicated horsepower be 10, then the 
mechanical efficiency will be 


M.E. 


7.5 

10 


which e,i uals 75 per cent. 

In te> t-books the efficiency of an engine is 
usually ^ onsidered as the relation between the 
heat-unit < consumed by the engine and the work 
or energy in foot-pounds given out by it. If the 
heat-unit i (which are measured by the quantity 
of fuel si pplied to the engine) be large compared 
to the W( rk or energy given out by the engine, 
its efficiency is small. 

Efficiency, Thermal. The ratio of the heat 
utilized by the engine, as shown by the power 
developed, as compared with the total heat con¬ 
tained in the fuel absorbed by the engine, is 
known as the thermal efficiency. This can be 
obtained by the following formula: 

Let F — consumption of fuel in pounds pe? 
brake horsepower per hour, and 

C = calorific value of the fuel per pound in 
heat units, then 


42.63 X 60 





GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


85 


The thermal efficiency of the gas engine is low 
as compared with the oil engine. The best gas 
engine makers now claim a thermal efficiency for 
their engines of 27 per cent, whereas recent tests 
of the Diesel oil engine show a thermal efficiency 
of 30.3 per cent. 

Electricity, Forms of. Electricity or elec¬ 
trical energy may be generated in several ways 
mechanically, chemically and statically or by 
friction. By whatever means it is produced, 
there are many properties which are common to 
all. There are also distinctive properties. The 
current supplied by a storage battery will flow 
continuously until the battery is practically ex¬ 
hausted, while the current from a dry battery can 
only be used intermittently: that is, it must have 
slight periods of rest, no matter how short they 

may be. 

The dynamo or magneto current is primarily 
of an alternating nature or one which reverses its 
direction of flow rapidly. In use, this alternating 
current is changed into a direct or continuous 
current flowing in one direction only, by means 
of a commutator. Any of the forms described 
are capable of igniting an explosive charge in a 
motor cylinder, but the static or frictional form 
of electricity is not used for this purpose on 

account of its erratic nature. 

Electric Light Outfits. Although gas and oil 
engines for electric lighting purposes are of 


86 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

special design, the lights may sometimes flicker. 
Flickering in the incandescent lights may be 
located by close inspection of the engine and 
dynamo, and may be due either to the flywheels, 
the governor or .the belt. To locate this defect 
and remedy it, notice the lamps carefully. If the 
variations in the light are due to lack of weight 
in the rim of the flywheel, these variations will 
be seen to coincide with the revolutions of the 
engine. Again, if the variation in the lights is 
only periodical, then this defect should be 
remedied by adjustment of the governor. Exam¬ 
ine the governing mechanism of the engine. 
If the variation is caused by the governor acting 
too slowly, then adjust the governor so as to 
cause more rapid action upon the controlling 
mechanism. 

The cause of the trouble may not be, as 
already suggested, in the flywheel or in the 
adjustment of the governor, but in the belt, 
which is frequently the sole cause of flickering in 
the lights. The engine and dynamo pulleys over 
which the belt runs should be exactly in line with 
each other. The belt should be made endless, 
01 if jointed the joints should be very carefully 
made. A thick, uneven joint in the belt will 
cause a flicker in the lights each time it passes 
over the dynamo pulley. 

Figure 14 shows a two-cycle gasoline engine 
directly connected to a dynamo, both engine 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 87 

and dynamo being mounted on a cast iron 
base. 

To secure a steady light with gas or oil 
engines, the practice has been to place a flywheel 
upon the dynamo shaft, as the speed of some 
engines sometimes varies as much as 5 per cent. 
The constructional details of some gas engines 



FIG. 14 

Electric light outfit, showing two-cycle engine direct connected 

to dynamo. 


used for this purpose have been so considerably 
improved that the dynamo flywheel is not consid- 
ered necessary. — 

This uniform speed has been largely secured 
by increasing the diameter and weight of the 
flywheels, together with an improved method of 
direct balancing, the balance being fitted to the 

































































88 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

crank, instead of to the rim of the fly-wheel, 
which is usually the case w T ith ordinary engines. 
A very sensitive governing gear, however, is 
necessary. In connecting up the exhaust pipe 
it should be run directly to the atmosphere with 
as few turns as possible. 



FIG. 15 



Improper exhaust connection. 

It is always wise to bush the exhaust pipe to 
a size larger than the size of the opening of the 
cylinder. It is said that about sixty-five feet of 
exhaust pipe laid in a straight line tend to create 

a vacuum in the cylinder the moment after the 
exhaust valve opens. 

This may be true for 


some engines, but it 










GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 89 

certainly would be a disadvantage in an engine 
governed by holding the exhaust valve open^ as 
in such cases the exhaust gases are alternately 
sucked into and expelled from the cylinder dur¬ 
ing the idle strokes. 



Figure 15 illustrates an improper method of 
connecting up the exhaust pipe. The end of 
the pipe exposed to the atmosphere is liable to 
collect rain or snow and lead it down to the 
cylinder when the engine is idle. 




















90 gas and oil engine hand-book 

Figure 16 illustrates the proper method of 
connecting the exhaust pipe. If the noise of the 
exhaust is not objectionable, the exhaust vessel 
may be dispensed with and a bushing put on the 
lower end of the exhaust pipe, which may be 
fitted with a stop cock. This is left open when 
the engine is idle, allowing any water to escape. 
Where the noise is objectionable the exhaust 
pipe may be led into an underground chamber 
of several cubic feet capacity. This pit may 
be partly filled with broken stone and connected 
to the atmosphere by a large pipe. Such a 
device will most effectually muffle the exhaust. 
The pit should be provided with a pair of light 
iron doors on top, which will open in case there 
should be an explosion of unburned gases es¬ 
caped from the cylinder. Exhaust pipes should 
never be led into brick chimneys. 

The danger of explosions of unburned gases 
is greatly increased by leading the exhaust into 
a brick chimney. 

Smoke coming from the exhaust of a gas or 
oil engine is due to one of two conditions: Over¬ 
lubrication—too much lubricating oil being fed 
to the cylinder of the engine, or too rich a mix¬ 
ture; that is, too much fuel and an insufficient 
supply of air. 

The first condition may be readily detected by 
the smell of burned oil and a yellowish smoke. 
The second, by a dense white smoke, accom¬ 
panied by a pungent odor. 



GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 91 

Exhaust Valve, Leaky. Considerable 
trouble is often experienced from this source,- 
owing to the action of the intense heat of the 
exhaust gas on the valve and its seat. This valve, 
especially if made of common steel, is apt to cor¬ 
rode and become pitted. Improvements in valve 
construction and more effective cooling of the 
exhaust valve seat have, however, eliminated 
much of this trouble; in fact, with late construc¬ 
tions, the occasional inspection of the valves is 
more a matter of precaution than a necessity. 

Explosions in the Inlet-pipe. These usually 
only occur in engines with mechanically operated 
inlet-valves, a weak or a too rich charge of 
explosive mixture being ignited burns slowly in 
the combustion chamber and when the piston has 
reached the end of the exhaust stroke and the 
inlet-valve commences to rise, the burning gases 
in the combustion chamber ignite the explosive 

mixture in the inlet-pipe. 

A further loss arises from this kind of explo¬ 
sion, as on the next admission or suction stroke 
these partly burned gases enter the combustion 
chamber, instead of an entirely fresh suppl} of 
gas and air, and consequently retard the com¬ 
bustion and reduce the power of the next explo¬ 


sion. 


* 92 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

Explosions, Weak. These may be caused 
from improper mixture, ignition set too late, loss 
of compression from defective piston, valves, or 
joints. 

Fire Insurance. The following are the gen¬ 
eral requirements of the various boards of fire 
underwriters for the installation and use of oil 
engines: 

Location of Engine. Engine shall not be 
located where the normal temperature is above 
95 degrees Fahrenheit, or within ten feet of any 
fire. 

If enclosed in room, same must be well venti¬ 
lated, and if room has a wood floor, the entire 
floor must be covered with metal and kept free 
from the drippings of oil. 

If engine is not enclosed, and if set on a wood 
floor, then the floor under and three feet outside 
of it must be covered with metal. 

Oil Feed Tank. If located inside of build- 
ing, shall not exceed five gallons capacity, and 
must be made of galvanized iron or copper, not 
less than No. 22 B. & S. Gauge, and must be 
double seamed and soldered, and must be set in 

a drip pan on the floor at the base of the 
engine. 

Fire Pot or Muffler. Gas or oil engines hav¬ 
ing a relief-exhaust in the form of a port or 
opening, which is uncovered by the piston shortly 
before the end of the explosion or working stroke 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 93 

of the engine, should have the fire pot or muffler 
connected with the relief-exhaust port opening 
and a separate pipe provided for the regular 
exhaust valve opening. If this is not done, back 
pressure from the relief-exhaust will oppose the 
free discharge of the exhaust gases from the main 
exhaust valve, thereby causing an excessive 



FIG. 17 

Muffler installation, showing muffler connected to relief-exhaust 

on left-hand side of engine. 


amount of the products of combustion to be left 
in the cylinder at the termination of the exhaust 
stroke. Figures 17 and 18 show methods of 
attaching the fire pot or muffler to the relief - 
exhaust on the left and right-hand sides of the- 
engine respectively. The main exhaust connec¬ 
tion is omitted in Figure 18. 





































94 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

Flash Test of Oils. The apparatus used for 
this purpose consists of a small copper vessel in 
which the oil to be tested is placed. This vessel 
is immersed in a larger vessel containing water, 
which forms part of the upper portion of the 
apparatus. 

A thermometer is suspended with its lower 



FIG. 18 

Muffler installation, showing muffler connected to relief-exhaust 
on right-hand side of engine. 


part in the oil. A heating lamp placed under 
the receptacle containing the water raises the 
temperature of both water and oil as required. 
A lighted taper is passed to and fro over the top 
of the oil as it becomes heated. When the vapor 
given off by the oil flashes the temperature is 
noted, and that is termed the flashing point of 
the oil tested. 














































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 95 

Flywheels. The flywheels of a gas or oil 
engine require careful keying on the crank shaft. 
If the keys are not a good fit and are not driven 
home properly the engine may knock when run¬ 
ning. Two keys are usually fitted to the shaft of 
large engines, one being a feather key, which is 
fitted in a keyway in the shaft as well as in a 
keyway cut in the flywheel hub, the second key 
being a taper key with a gib-head, which is 
recessed in the flywheel hub and made concave 
on the lower side to fit the shaft. 

Weight of Rims of Flywheels. The weight 
of the rim of the flywheel is the only portion 
which enters into the following calculations, the 
weight of the web or spokes and hub being 
neglected. 

Let M.P be the mean pressure of the com¬ 
pression, and A the area of the piston in square 
inches. If S be the stroke of the piston in 
inches, and N the number of revolutions per 
minute of the engine, let D be the outside diam¬ 
eter of the flywheel in inches and W its required 
weight in pounds, then 

M.P X A X S X N 

W —--- 

2560 X D 

Diameter of Rims of Flywheels. An 
engine that is intended to operate at a slow rate 
of speed and consequently with a high degree of 
compression, will require a flywheel of much 




96 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

greater diameter and weight than a higher speed 
engine of the same bore and stroke. It may be 
well to remember that within certain limitations 
the diameter and weight of a flywheel should be 
as small as is possible, as an increase in either 
means a reduction in engine speed, increased 
friction and a consequent loss of power. 

To ascertain the proper diameter of a flywheel 
when all other conditions are known, if D be the 
required diameter of the flywheel in inches, then 

p _ M.P X A X S X N 
2560 X W 

Two flywheels should be used for steady run- 
ning, at the same time, they equalize the wear on 
the crank-shaft bearings. They should be care¬ 
fully turned and balanced, and run perfectly true 
at full speed. If one wheel is used, it should be 
of heavy construction and supported by an out¬ 
side bearing:. 

o 

Foundation Bolts. The number and size of 
these are usually determined by the builder of the 
engine and indicated by the number of holes in 
the engine base. The bolts should be long 
enough to extend from the bottom of the founda¬ 
tion to from two and a half to four inches above 
the capstone. 

They should have iron anchor plates at the bot¬ 
tom and be threaded at the top to 
nut. 


receive a 



GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 97 


Three or four days after the foundation is 
completed, and the cement firmly set, the engine 
may be placed in position and bolted down ready 
for work. 

Foundations. A concrete foundation, if prop¬ 
erly constructed, is the best. While founda¬ 
tions are usually built of brick or stone laid in 
cement, a foundation may be of concrete, mixed 
as follows: One part of cement, two parts of 
coarse sand, five parts of fine crushed stone or 
coarse gravel. 

It is desirable to have the capstone from 3 to 
6 inches wider and longer than the base of the 
engine. The depth of the foundation will depend 
entirely upon the condition of the ground in the 
vicinity where the engine is to be set up. 

The foundation should always go below the 
freezing line and as much below as is necessary 
to get a firm base. Ordinarily from 3 to 4 feet 
is sufficient for small engines of from 4 to 
12 horsepower. For larger engines from 15 
to 40 horsepower, 4 to G feet is not too much. 

Where possible, the sides of the foundation 
should have a slope or batter not less than 
15 degrees. 

Four-cycle Engine, Construction of. The 

general construction of a four-cycle gas or oil 
engine is plainly shown in Figure 19. The 
engine is equipped with both hot tube and elec¬ 
tric ignition and an atmospherically or suction 


98 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

s 

operated inlet-valve. Reference to the table and 
the corresponding letters in the drawing will give 
a clear understanding of the use of the various 
parts of the engine. 



FIG. 19 

Vertical longitudinal section of four-cycle motor, showing con¬ 
structional details. 


A—Crank Case. 

B—Cylinder. 

C—Crank Shaft. 

D—Connecting-rod. 

E—Piston. 

F—Piston Wrist Pin. 

G—Upper Hand Hole Plate. 
H—Lower Hand Hole Plate. 


M—Crank Pin bearing Ad¬ 
justing Nut. 

N—Crank Pin bearing Lock 
Nut. 

O—Cylinder Oiler. 

P—Ignition Tube. 

R—Admission Valve. 

T—Piston-rings. 


J Oil Test Plug. U—Inlet for cooling water.' 

R Drain Plug. V—Outlet for cooling water. 

L—Splash lubricator. 


Four-cycle Engine, Operation of. A four¬ 
cycle engine has only one working stroke or 
impulse for each two revolutions. During these 




















GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 99 


two revolutions which complete the cycle of the 
engine, six operations are performed: 

1. Admission of an explosive charge of gas or 
gasoline vapor and air to the cylinder of the 
engine. 

2. Compression of the explosive charge. 

3. Ignition of the compressed charge by a hot 
tube or an electric spark. 

4. Explosion or extremely sudden rise in the 
pressure of the compressed charge, from the 
increase in temperature after ignition. 

5. Expansion of the burning charge during the 
working stroke of the engine piston. 

6. Exhaust or expulsion of the burned gases 
from the engine cylinder. 

As pressure increases with a rise in tempera¬ 
ture, which in an engine the moment after 
ignition has taken place is about 2,700 degrees 
Fahrenheit, the higher the temperature of the 
ignited gases, the greater would be the pressure. 
As this pressure is expended in work on the 
engine piston, the whole of it might, if expansion 
of the burning gases were continued long enough, 
be utilized. Full utilization of the expansion of 
the gases is impossible from a mechanical point 
of view. The expansion of the gases should be 
as rapid as possible, as the faster the piston 
uncovers the cylinder wall, the less time will be 
left for the transmission of heat or energy to the 
cylinder wall. Gasoline vapor or gas in them- 


100 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

selves are not combustible, but must be mixed 
with a certain amount of air before ignition and 
consequent combustion can be effected. The 
combustion of the gases is not instantaneous, but 
continues during the entire working stroke of the 
engine piston. 

Four-cycle Engine, Principle of. Figure 20 
gives four diagrammatic views of the operation of 
a four-cycle gas or oil engine. It shows an inlet- 
valve A, valve-openings B, cylinder C, cam D, 
exhaust valve E, combustion chamber F, piston 
G, valve springs H, crank case J, connecting-rod 
K and crank-pin L. 

Diagram No. 1 shows the piston about to draw 
in a charge of explosive mixture, the suction or 
drawing in of the charge continues until the 
piston has reached the position shown in Diagram 
No. 2. Then the piston returns until it arrives 
at the position shown in Diagram No. 3, com¬ 
pressing the charge of mixture during this opera¬ 
tion. Just before the piston has reached the end 
of its travel in this direction, the charge under 
compression is ignited either by an incandescent 
tube or by an electric spark and the force Qf the 
explosion drives the piston back to the position 
shown in Diagram No. 4, when the exhaust-valve 
is opened by means of the cam and valve-lifter 
rod. The exhaust valve remains open until the 
piston has reached the position shown in Dia¬ 
gram No. 1. Ihen it closes, the piston again 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 101 



FIG. 20 

Four-cycle motor diagram, showing the various operations dur¬ 
ing the cycles. 

































102 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

commences to draw in a charge of explosive mix¬ 
ture and the cycle of operation of the engine is 
repeated. As it requires four strokes of the 
piston or two complete revolutions of the crank 
shaft to complete the cycle, there is consequently 
only one impulse every two revolutions or one 
working piston stroke out of four. 

Four-cycle Marine Engines. A single-cylinder 
four-cycle engine is shown in Figure 21 This 
style of engine may be used for either marine or 
automobile work, being light in weight, simple in 
construction and made in sizes from to 10 
horsepower. 

A two-cylinder engine of similar construction 
to the one just described is illustrated on the 
front page of this work. These engines are from 
9 to 20 horsepower. Such engines are being 
greatly used for motor launches on account of 
their light weight and great power. 

Friction Clutches. When fast-and-loose pul¬ 
leys or friction clutches are used the advantages 
gained are: the ease with which the engine can 
be started, the loose pulley or friction clutch 
only, instead of the whole line shaft, has to be 
turned when the plant is started, and in case of 
accident or other emergency necessitating the 
quick stopping of the revolving machinery, this 
can be accomplished at once by simply moving 
over the lever of the friction clutch or tiffht-and- 
loose pulleys. Otherwise the heavy flywheels o y 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 1 ^ 


the engine would keep revolving for some time 
after the fuel supply of the engine is shut off, and 





















































































































104 GAS and oil engine hand-book 

being directly connected by belt to the shafting 
and machinery, the whole plant is in motion as 
long as the flywheels keep revolving. 

Fuel Consumption of Gas and Oil Engines. 

The fuel consumption of an engine is always one 
of grave importance to the purchaser, as well as 
to the manufacturer. 

Ordinarily about l T 2 o pints of gasoline or 
about 15 feet of natural gas, per horsepower per 
hour under full load, will cover the fuel con¬ 
sumption. That is, when the fuels used are of 
standard quality and the water comes fro m the 
water jacket at a temperature of about 140 
to 160 degrees Fahrenheit. 

The temperature of the water in the jacket 
around the cylinder has a great deal to do with 
fuel consumption. 

To economize on the fuel consumption of an 
engine the following points should be observed 

1* J'o keep the jacket water at 160 degrees 
Fahrenheit. 

2. To run the engine at a medium speed. 

3. To use a good standard grade fuel. 

4. To see that every charge the engine takes is 
exploded, for which a proper mixture and a good 
spark or hot tube are necessary. 

The admission valve should close properly 
between charges, so as not to allow a continuous 
flow of fuel into the engine. 

6. Never throttle the fuel so closely that the 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 105 


\ 


engine cannot get a full charge every time it 
needs it. 

7. Be sure that there is no leak in the supply 
or overflow pipes where fuel can escape. 

8. When gasoline or kerosene is used, be sure 
that there is no leak in the supply tank. 

9. See that the exhaust and inlet valves seat 
properly and do not leak. The piston-rings 
should hold the pressure due to the explosion. 

Fuel Gas Oil. An oil known as fuel gas oil is 
procured in the process of fractional distillation 
after the lighter oils and the illuminating oil? 
have been taken off. Tests of samples of this 
fuel gas oil, the characteristics of which vary con¬ 
siderably, are given in the following table: 

FUEL GAS OIL. 

Specific gravity. 0.832 .878 

Beaume.. 36° 30.2° 

Flash-point. 144° F. 298° F. 

Fire test. 183° F. 247° F. 

This fuel is much used in oil engines in the 
United States. With the heavier grades a slight 
deposit of carbon is left in the engines, which 
requires periodical removing. 

Gas Bag. The gas bag of a gas engine 
should be entirely of vulcanized rubber, or it 
may be made with an iron frame and rubber 
sides. 

The gas bag serves its purpose better the 
nearer it is to the engine. As the pulsating of 






106 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

the bag endangers its pulling off the pipe, care 
should be taken to secure the openings of the 
bag to the pipe by winding soft iron or copper 
wire around them. 

As oil destroys rubber and changes it into a 
sticky, viscous mass, the gas bag should be 
placed out of reach of any oil which might be 
liable to splash upon it. 

Gases, Expansion of. All gases expand 
equally, part of their volume for each degree 
of temperature, Centigrade, or part of their 
volume for each degree of temperature, Fahren¬ 
heit. 

Gasoline, How Obtained. Gasoline, ben¬ 
zine, naphtha and the kindred hydrocarbons are 
the products of crude mineral oil. 

They are separated from the crude oil by a 
process of distillation. The process is very sim¬ 
ilar to that of generating steam from water. 

By the application of heat, water raised to a 
temperature of 212 degrees Fahrenheit changes 
from a liquid to a gaseous state, called steam. 
This conversion is only temporary. If steam is 
confined and cooled to a certain point it will 
quickly return to its liquid state, water, by the 
process known as condensation. 

Crude mineral oil subjected to heat will give 
off, in the form of vapor, such products as gaso¬ 
line, benzine, naphtha, etc. The degrees of 
heat at which these products are separated are 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 107 

comparatively low. Various degrees of heat will 
separate the distinct products. As a means of 
illustration, say that crude oil raised to a temper¬ 
ature of 110 degrees gives off vapor which when 
cooled will liquefy into what is known as naphtha, 
benzine at 125 degrees, and gasoline at 140 
degrees. These degrees of temperature are not 
authentic—simply used to illustrate. 

After these lighter products are separated there 
yet remains the thick, oily liquid from which the 
various lubricating oils are prepared. 

Kerosene oil is one of the principal products of 
crude oil, and the oily sediment which frequently 
accumulates in the bottom of the tank or can in 
which gasoline is confined is kerosene oil, which 
distills over in small quantity with the vapor of 
gasoline. 

Gasoline or Kerosene Fires. In case of fire 
due to gasoline or kerosene, use fine earth, flour 
or sand on top of the burning liquid. Never 
use water, it will only serve to float the gasoline 
or kerosene and consequently spread the flames. 

A dry powder can be used for this purpose 
which will extinguish the fire in a few seconds. 
It is made as follows: Common salt, 15 parts— 
sal-ammoniac, 15 parts—bicarbonate of soda, 
20 parts. The ingredients should be thoroughly 
mixed together and passed through a fine mesh 
sieve to secure a homogeneous mixture. 

If by any chance a tank of gasoline or kero- 


108 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

sene takes fire at a small outlet or leak, run to 
the tank and not away from it, and either blow 
or pat the flame out. Never put water on burn- 
ing gasoline or kerosene, the gasoline or kerosene 
will float on top of the water and the flames 
spread much more rapidly. Throw fine earth, 
sand or flour on top of the burning liquid. Flour 
is best. The best extinguisher for a fire of this 
kind in a room that may be closed, is ammonia. 
Several gallons of ammonia, thrown in the room 
with such force as to break the bottles which 
contain it, will soon smother the strongest fire if 
the room be kept closed. 

Gasoline explosions are often due to a pressure 
within a tightly-closed container, caused by high 
temperature, which vaporizes or gasifies the liquid 
within. 

The changing of the liquid to the gaseous state 
causes expansion, and if there is no vent or safety 
valve connection the pressure within rises to a 
point sufficient to cause an explosion. 

G&S Producer. Producer gas, whether from 
anthracite or bituminous coal, lignite, wood, 
charcoal, or coke, is remarkably uniform in 
quality, and a very desirable gas, if properly 
cleansed from dust, tar and sulphur. As prac¬ 
tically all the combustible matter of coke and 
charcoal is fixed carbon, these fuels are most 
readily gasified, and on this account are favorite 
fuels for small gas plants of the suction pro¬ 
ducer type. 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 109 

Anthracite coal contains a small quantity of 
volatile matter, but is also a very desirable fuel, 
the gas requiring but little cleaning. Bituminous 
coal, lignite and wood, although giving a de¬ 
sirable power gas, at the same time yield consid¬ 
erable amounts of hydro-carbon vapors, con¬ 
densible in the form of tar and pitch, the re¬ 
moval of which from the gas is attended with 
some difficulty. 

Complete producer gas plant equipments may 
be had of several types, suited either to bitumi¬ 
nous or non-bituminous fuels, and with or with¬ 
out apparatus for the reclamation of by-prod¬ 
ucts, such as ammonia, tar and other hydro¬ 
carbons. The majority of these systems are 
simple in construction and operation, and yield 
a net efficiency considerably in excess of the 
steam boiler plant. 

In localities where natural gas is not avail¬ 
able, the producer gas plant affords a compara¬ 
tively simple and inexpensive means of generat¬ 
ing a suitable fuel gas. 

The gas producer takes the coal, ignites it, 
and by supplying a limited amount of air, and 
a proportionate amount of v r ater, keeps the fire 
at a dull red glow, just the right temperature 
to produce a good uniform quality of gas and 
prevent formation of clinkers. As the load on 
the engine is varied, a greater or lesser quantity 
of gas is required, but it is important that the 
quality or heat power remain the same. 

At present three distinct types of gas pro- 


110 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


ducer are offered to the power user. They are 
the suction producer, the steam-pressure pro¬ 
ducer, and the induced down-draft producer. 

In the suction producer the fuel is fed into 
the generator from a hopper at the top. Ashes 
and clinkers are removed from the bottom, and 
air is usually admitted below the grate, first 
passing through economizers, where it is heated 
and pkssed over a body of hot water to absorb 
the necessary moisture. In some makes of pro¬ 
ducer the air is admitted direct from the engine 
room, and a small, regulated amount of water 
is fed into a space prepared around the grate, 
where it is evaporated and is carried as steam 
along with the air up into the fuel bed. 

In this type of producer, coke or anthracite 
coal can only be used, and not even these fuels 
in the very small sizes. It is not easy to note 
the condition of the fire, as the generator cannot 
be opened at the top without admitting air and 
causing a poor mixture of gas; the only thing 
to do in this emergency is to feed in more coal 
to stop the chimney holes in the fire-bed, or 
quickly insert a poker bar and thoroughly tamp 
the fuel. The latter is the better way, even 
though it has to be done blindly. 

In operating this type of producer, trials and 
tribulations may be many and varied, depending 
largely upon how the producer is made and the 
basis of its horse power rating. A suction gas 
producer rated at more than 18% pounds of 
coal per square foot of grate area, or area of 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 111 

fuel-bed cross-section, is very apt to be too 
small, and a producer so small for the power 
it has to develop that it must be driven to fur¬ 
nish sufficient gas will immediately develop 
clinker troubles, variable gas troubles or excess 
C0 2 . If an attempt is made to correct clinker 
troubles with an over-supply of steam an excess 
of hydrogen w T ill result, with its attendant engine 
difficulties of back-firing, or premature ex¬ 
plosions. 

Even with a producer of the proper size, the 
regulation of the volume of steam or water to 
the volume of air must be closely watched. Too 
frequent raking of the fire will waste good fuel, 
and induce draft holes through the fuel bed. Too 
much poking from the top will pack the file, 
and necessitate an increased vacuum. Too fine 
a fuel will produce the same troubles, and an^ 
coal that fuses easily w T ill not do for this type 
of producer. Anthracite running high in slate 
mixture tends to run high in sulphur, and high 
sulphur w T ith slate makes bad clinkers at any 
time, and if the fire is forced at all will soon 
necessitate a shutdowm to clean out. The pro 
ducer should be of ample size—10 pounds of 
coal per square foot of internal area and rated 
on 1 % pounds of coal per horse power hour. 

It is not good practice to use a suction gas- 
producer plant of over 150 horse power when 
the engine has to draw the gas from the pro¬ 
ducer by the vacuum in the cylinder. Sizes 



112 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

larger than this should be equipped with ex¬ 
haust fans, which will relieve the engine of this 
work, the exhausters being driven by motors or 
other auxiliary power. 



FIG. 22 

Sectional view of Monahan Producer. 


A vertical section of the Monahan suction pro¬ 
ducer as shown in Figure 22 , is of the suction 
type, and consists of the usual generator, scrub¬ 
ber and equalizing tank. The vaporizer for sup¬ 
plying steam to the fuel bed is an upper exten- 















































































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 113 


sion of the generator, but is located so that the 
hot gases from the fuel bed do not impinge 
squarely on the bottom of the vaporizer. This 
is clearly shown in the sectional view, Figure 22* 
in which the revolving grate and air heater art 



also shown. The scrubber is of the wet, coke- 
filled type, and the equalizing tank is a simple 
drum within an equalizing chamber formed in 
its cover, and separated from the drum by a 
rubber diaphragm. 

A small vent in the cover allows air to pass in 














































114 gas AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

or out slowly, forming a sort of brake on the 
fluctuations of pressure within the drum. The 
regulator controlling the admission of steam to 
the fuel bed is shown in section in Figure 23. 
The outlet at the bottom is connected to the 
ash pit of the generator. The upper intake 
admits air only, and the intake near the middle 
admits steam. When running light the suction 
is insufficient to pull down the valve, and air 
alone passes through the fire. As the load in¬ 
creases, the increasing suction gradually pulls 
down the valve (which is a piston valve) until 
the steam ports are uncovered to an extent de¬ 
pending upon the load. This arrangement pre¬ 
vents the chilling of the fire with steam at very 
light loads, and graduates the supply for heavier 
loads. 

The Steam-Pressure Producer. This type has 
an upward draft, the air being drawn in around 
a steam jet through a Korting nozzle of the 
Bunsen type. Anthracite and coke are the only 
kinds of fuel available, unless tar extractors and 
other expensive mechanical auxiliaries are pro¬ 
vided to clean the gas. When the producer is 
equipped with such cleaning apparatus, bitumi¬ 
nous coals or fuels containing volatile hydro¬ 
carbons may be used, but as these are condensed 
and washed out of the gas, the thermal efficiency 
of the producer is reduced to the extent of the 
loss of the heat units contained in the extracted 
hydrocarbons, which are the richest part of the 
fuel. 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 115 


With a pressure producer it is necessary to 
have gas-storage capacity, so that gas-holders 
must be provided regardless of the kind of fuel 
used, and these must hold enough gas to run 
the engine while the lire is being poked and the 
ashes removed. Coal is fed through a tightly 
closing hopper on top of the generator, and 
ashes are removed from the bottom when the 
generator is not in operation. It is almost im¬ 
possible to poke oi bar the fire while the pro¬ 
ducer is running, as any outlet for this purpose 
will be flooded with burning gas escaping under 
whatever pressure the steam jet is maintaining at 
the time. 

Induced Down-Draft Producer. In the down- 
draft producer the gas is drawn down through 
the fire by an exhauster or fan, and forced by 
the exhauster through the main to the point of 
use. There is probably more horse power of 
these producers in use than in all of the others 
put together, but they are mostly of large size 
and the plants only number about one-fourth of 
the total. 

Essentially these are bituminous coal pro¬ 
ducers. They are operated with an open top, 
where the fire is seen by the operator, and any 
blowholes or passages in the fire are easily closed 
by the use of the poker or tamping bar, and 
fresh fuel is fed as necessary. The volatile 
hydrocarbons of the fuel, being distilled at the 
top of the fuel bed, mix with the in-drawn air 
and steam and pass down through the bed of 


116 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


incandescent carbon, where they combine with 
the other gases and leave at the bottom of the 
producer, as a fixed non-condensable gas. The 
combination of gases then passes directly into 
the bottom of a vertical tubular boiler and out 
at the top, thence into the bottom of the wet 
scrubber, where the outlet is under water to form 
a seal and prevent the gas from returning to the 
producer. From the top of the wet scrubber the 
gas passes to the exhauster, and is forced 
through the dry scrubber to the gas-holder. 

The boiler, which is a part of the producer 
installation, supplies a large part of the steam 
necessary for the producer, and also the amount 
necessary to run the engine driving the ex¬ 
hauster. This steam is made from the heat given 
up by the gas in its passage through the boiler, 
and all heat that is not absorbed by the water 
is delivered up to the wet scrubber. Once a 
week these producers have to be entirely cooled 
down to be cleaned, and as the steam pressure in 
the boiler is down at this time, an auxiliary 
boiler has to be provided to start up again. 
Some time during the w r eek, especially toward 
the last days, the fuel beds become so clogged 
with the accumulation of ashes and clinkers that 
water-gas runs have to be made every few mo¬ 
ments ; the load on the engine driving the ex¬ 
hauster increases, and both these conditions so 
increase the demand for steam that the auxiliary 
boiler has to be brought into use. 

For continuous 24-liour service with this type 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 117 

of producer it is necessary to have a spare unit, 
in order that it can take the place of the one 
that has been in service for a week. A single 
spare unit in an installation of a large number 
of units does not add a very large percentage to 
the original investment, but a spare unit to a 
single outfit nearly doubles the cost. The fol¬ 
lowing timely suggestions regarding gas engine 
practice are presented by the Gas Power Sec¬ 
tion of the A. S, M. E.: 

“Engine efficiency should be expressed in 

terms of effective heat value, until a combined 
gas-vapor cycle comes into use. For the pres¬ 
ent, let us not confound a definite engine effi¬ 
ciency by introducing the indefinite factor of 
latent heat of water vapor. Engine efficiencies 
should be given for full, to half load at least. 

“Producer Capacity. The producer should 
be rated upon its ability to gasify coal. It 
would be more accurate to rate on B. t. u. of 
standard gas, but this is impracticable. Should 
the builder desire to rate on a special coal, he 
might insert a clause limiting some of the con¬ 
stituents. In specifying sizes, a maximum as 
well as a minimum screen should be mentioned. 
A mixture of many sizes packs the producer as 
badly as a very small fuel. As a usual thing, 
the flexibility of the producer will more than 
meet the overload possibilities of the engine. . 

“Producer efficiency can only be specified in 
terms of B. t. u. output, involving volumetric 
measurement, which it is usually impossible to 


118 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

determine except by calibration of the engine. 
As we are dependent upon the engine as a gas 
meter, we must be consistent, and determine the 
efficiency of the producer in like terms; that is, 
the ratio between heat output in standard gas 
and heat input in fuel for the fire. 

“Producer Regulation . An important point 
is the property of the producer as regards the 
regulation of heat value of the gas, and its 
pressure as delivered to the engine. Quality 
regulation is covered by the engine-capacity 
clause ‘with gas of not less than so many B. t. u. 
heat value per cubic foot.’ 

“Hydrogen Content. This may be expressed 
as a percentage by volume of the gas, a per¬ 
centage by volume of combustible in the gas, a 
percentage of the heat value of the gas per 
mixture, or a percentage by volume of the mix¬ 
ture. The last appears to be the most explana¬ 
tory. The first conveys no impression of the 
commercial value of the gas. The second is 
better in this respect. The third presents widely 
varying values.” 

Gasoline Pump, A combined gasoline pump 
and gravity gasoline feed is shown in Figure 94s 
The gasoline is pumped into the cup to the right 
of the pump and is from this point drawn into the 
inlet-pipe of the engine by the inductive or suc¬ 
tion action of the piston of the engine. The 
supply of gasoline to the engine is regulated by 
means of a needle-valve, the surplus gasoline fed 
to the cup is carried back to the supply tank 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

through the pipe in the center of the cup. By 
this method a constant level is maintained in the 

cup, thus ensur¬ 
ing a uniform 
supply of gaso¬ 
line to the engine 
at all times. 

Gasoline Trac- 
tion Engines. 
From the result 
of experience it 
has been found 
that gasoline 
traction engines 
require a double 
cylinder con¬ 
struction, as the 
duty of the en¬ 
gine is to not 
only drive the 
traction gearing 
but to propel 

itself over the roads. It is found that for success¬ 
ful work in the field, which has heretofore been 
occupied by the steam traction engine, a gas¬ 
oline engine of from 30 to 40 brake horsepower 
must be used. In an engine producing this 
amount of power in a single cylinder, the sudden 
impulses at intermittent intervals would require 
for successful operation a train of gearing so 

















































120 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

large and heavy that it absolutely precludes the 
possibility of making any reasonable construction. 
When, however, the engine develops the same 
power in two cylinders with impulses twice as 
frequent and only one-half as strong, it is possible 
to make a train of gears which will transmit the 
full power of the engine and consequently a 
strong and successful gasoline traction engine. 
The builders of gasoline traction engines have 
heretofore used engines of the old models, and 
while these engines have served their purpose in 
stationary work and to some extent in portable 
woik, their use has not been as satisfactory as 
with the two-cylinder style of gasoline traction 
engine. 

Gas or Oil Engines, Successful Operation of. 

Gas or oil engines are dependent for successful 
operation on two things: First, a charge of gas 
01 ^ a p°i> mixed with sufficient air to produce an 
explosive mixture, and second, a method of firing 
the charge after it has been taken into the com¬ 
bustion chamber of the motor. 

When coal or natural gas is used the supply is 
taken from the main and mixed directly with the 
necessary proportion of air. When gasoline or 
kerosene is used, air is mixed with them in the 
correct proportion by carbureting devices. 

T-he principal parts of a gas or oil engine are 
the cylinder, the piston, the piston-rings which 
fit into grooves in the piston: two sets of valves 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 121 

one to admit the charge and the other to permit 
it to escape alter the explosion, a crank shaft and 
connecting-rod which connect it with the piston, 
and a flywheel, whose presence insures steady 
running of the motor, and whose furtliei func¬ 
tions will be better understood as the descrip¬ 
tion proceeds. In the two-cycle form of gas or 
oil engine there is really but one valve, which is 
located in the crank case, the exhaust and admis¬ 
sion-ports being covered and uncovered by the 

piston itself. 

Generator. This term is usually applied to 
any form of chemical or mechanical energy which 
can be used to produce a current of electricity. 
Mechanical generators of electricity used for 
ignition purposes are of two forms, dynamos or 
magnetos. The former is self-exciting by means 
of coils of wire wound upon the magnet limbs. 
The latter has permanent magnets instead of 
coils of wire to induce the current in the arma¬ 
ture of the magneto. Magnetos, on account of 
their simplicity of construction and low first cost, 
are more generally used for ignition purposes 
than dynamos. They may be operated by tne 
engine with a friction-pulley, gear or belt. 

Governing Gas or Oil Engines. There are 
various methods of governing, which are here 

enumerated and described. 

Hit-or-miss principle: Shutting off the gas or 
oil supply, opening or closing the exhaust, shut- 


122 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

ting off the ignition, disengaging the valve 
operator. 

Throttling method: Throttling the gas or oil 
stipply, throttling the charge of explosive mix¬ 
ture. 

Varying the point of ignition: In cases where 
gas or oil engines are fitted with some form of 
electrical ignition, they are sometimes regulated 
by the governor being connected with a commu¬ 
tator, which automatically cuts the current ofi 
from the sparking device when the limit of speed 
has been passed, and the charge is not exploded 
till the revolutions of the engine are reduced to 
the proper speed, when the action of the governor 
closes the electrical circuit and the ignition again 
takes place. 

A similar result may be attained also by vary¬ 
ing the point of ignition, but both of these 
methods are not very economical. 

Figure 25 shows a form of governor which 
operates by preventing the exhaust-valve from 
opening. When the speed of the engine passes 
its normal limit, the balls A of the governor 
move out towards the periphery of the gear or 
wheel which carries them, causing the cam B to 
be moved to the right by the action of the dogs 

on the governor arms, which engage in a grooved 
collar on the sleeve C. 

The nose of the cam B is thus kept out of 
engagement with the roller D until the motor 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 1211 


resumes its normal speed, thus preventing the 
valve -lifter from opening the valve. 

Normally the cam is held in position by the 
springs attached to the governor balls, against 



FIG. 25 


I I V3 ■ 

Exhaust-valve governor whichgrates!Wthrowing the cam out 
of contact with the cam-roiier. 


the shoulder of the bearing F, which carries the 
cam-shaft G. 

A form of governor is shown in Figure 2b 
which may be used in connection with any of the 
methods of governing described above. It is 















































124 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


usually located on an independent bracket and 
driven from the cam-shaft of the motor. 

Figure 27 shows a governor working on the 
hit-and-miss principle. When the engine tends to 


run above its 
normal speed, 
the action of the 
governor balls 
causes knife- 
edge to move 
away from the 
notch in the end 
of the valve 
plunger, thus 
throwing the 
valve out of ac¬ 
tion. 

An inertia 
governor is 
shown in Figure 
$8 Should the 
engine attempt 
to increase its 
speed above nor¬ 
mal, the lower 



FIG. 26 


Centrifugal governor for operating either 
hit-and-miss or throttling forms of 
speed regulating mechanism. 


end of the double-ended lever, at the left 
in the drawing, will be depressed by the cam 
and the valve-lifter thrown out of an engage¬ 
ment with the step immediately above the roller, 
in this manner preventing any further action of 


























GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 125 


the valve-lifter until the speed of the motor is 


reduced. 

Hand Starting Device. A hand starting 
device, for starting engines of from 10 to 25 
horsepower, is shown in Figure 29, the flywheels 
of the engine are turned over until the piston is 
just past the dead center of the explosion or 
power stroke, the combustion chamber is filled 
with an explosive mixture by means of a hand 


03 



FIG. 27 

Uit-and-miss type of centrifugal governor °perates by 

throwing the knife-edge out of contact with the 
valve-stem lifter. 


pump, after a match has been inserted in the cock 
shown to the left in the drawing. The plug of 
the cock is closed, cutting off the match, the 
plunger is given a smart blow with the hand, the 
match is then consequently fired, the charge 
ignited and the piston started on its working or 
power stroke. 




















126 GAS AND OIL ENGINE IIAND-BOOK 


Hornsby-Akroyd Oil Engine. In this en¬ 
gine, a sectional view of which is shown in 
Figure the oil is first introduced in liquid 
form into the vaporizer shown at the back of 
the cylinder. The heat necessary for vaporiz¬ 
ing the oil is supplied at starting by external 



PIG. 27a 

Hornsby-Akroyd horizontal engine 


lamps, but when the engine is in operation the 
continued combustion of the fuel supplies suffi¬ 
cient heat for both vaporization and ignition. 
Air necessary for combustion is introduced into 
the cylinder during the suction period of the 
cycle, this being a four-cycle engine. Thus the 
cylinder becomes charged with air and the vapor¬ 
izer becomes filled with a spray of oil, both events 
occurring simultaneously. During the compres¬ 
sion period the air in the cylinder being forced 














































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 



FIG. 27b 


Hornsby-Akroyd vertical engine 




































































































128 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

into the vaporizer becomes properly mixed with 
the oil and an explosive mixture is formed. The 
deposit of carbon frequently found where crude 
oil is used does not enter the cylinder nor come 
in contact with the piston or piston rings, but is 
formed in the vaporizer cap. A flange cover at 
the back of the cap allows the quick removal 
of this deposit periodically, usually about every 
sixty hours of running. In the vertical type of 
the Hornsby-Akroyd engine, shown in section 
in Figure 27b, the vaporizer is placed horizon¬ 
tally on the side of the cylinder, while the air and 
exhaust valves are located in housings in the top 
cover. As is the case with the horizontal type 
shown in Figure 27 a, the ignition of the gases 
in the cylinder is caused automatically by the 
heat of compression, together with the heat 
stored in the walls of the vaporizer. The method 
of governing consists in the automatic lengthen¬ 
ing and shortening of the stroke of the oil supply 
pumps, thus giving very close regulation. 

Horsepower of Gas or Oil Engines. A horse¬ 
power is the rate of work or energy expended in 
raising a weight of 550 pounds one foot in one 
second, or raising 33,000 pounds one foot in one 
minute. A good horse for a short period of time 
can do much more. 

As the ordinary formula used for the calcula¬ 
tion of horsepower in connection with steam 
engines is not directly applicable to gas or oil 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 129 

_ i - 

engine practice, formulas are here given that are 
more suited to the purpose. 

Let D be the diameter of the cylinder in inches, 
and S the stroke of the piston also in inches: if 



FIG. 28 

Inertia type of governor, which operates by throwing the 
valve-lifter rod out of contact with the cam-roller lever 


N be the number of revolutions per minute of the 
motor, and H.P the required horsepower of the 
motor, then for a four-cycle motor 

hf _ d 2 xsxn 


18,000 



















130 gas and oil engine hand-book 


Example: What horsepower should be devel¬ 
oped by an engine of 4j inches bore and 6 inches 
stroke, at a speed of 600 revolutions per minute? 
Answer: The square of the bore multiplied 

by the stroke is 
equal to 121.5, 
this multiplied 
by 600, and di¬ 
vided by 18,000, 
gives 4.05 as 
the horsepower 
of the motor. 

From a theo¬ 
retical stand¬ 
point a two- 
cycle engine 
should not only 
have as great a 
speed but also be 
capable of de- 

FIG. 29 veloping almost 

Match igniter for string gas or gasoline twice the power 

that a four-cycle 
engine does. It is a fact, nevertheless, that its 
actual performance is far different. 

The horsepower of a two-cycle engine may be 
calculated from the following formula: 

TT ^ D 2 X S X N 

H. P = —-—-- 

21,000 

Example: Required, the horsepower of § 


















GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 131 

two-cycle motor of inches bore and 6 inches 
stroke, with a speed of 600 revolutions per minute? 

Answer: The square of the bore multiplied 
by the stroke is equal to 121.5, which multiplied 
by 600, and divided by 21,000, gives 3.47 as the 
required horsepower. The results given by the 
above examples agree very closely with those 
obtained from actual practice. 

Indicated horsepower is the actual power pro¬ 
duced in the cylinder, from which must be 
deducted the power required for driving the 
engine itself. 

Brake horsepower, also called actual horse¬ 
power, is the net effective power given off at 
the driving pulley of the engine, and this form of 
horsepower is the one for which a guarantee 
should be obtained from manufacturers by users. 

Hot Tube Ignition. The incandescent tube 
system of ignition consists of a tube of metal or 
porcelain, one end of which is closed and the 
other screwed or fastened into the combustion 

chamber by suitable means. 

The flame of a Bunsen burner is projected 
against the ignition tube, rendering it incandescent, 
resulting in the firing of the compressed charge 
slightly before the end of the compression stroke. 

The Bunsen burner should be adjusted so as 
to give a small blue flame entirely round the 
ignition tube. If too much gas is being used, a 
smell will come from the chimney. 


•132 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


It is important that the ignition tube be always 
kept to a bright red heat, should it be allowed to 
get foul, misfires will occur. 

Ignition tubes should be renewed as soon as 
they begin to appear defective, which will be 
indicated by irregularity in the firing, as, 
although the engine may continue working for 
some time, a considerable loss of gas may be 
going on. 

In putting in a new ignition tube care should 
be taken that no grit is allowed to get into the 
passage leading to the combustion chamber. 

Igniter, Cleaning an. The igniter should be 
taken off and cleaned after intervals of from sixty 
to ninety days of constant running. All carbon 
and corrosion should be removed from the igniter 
points and mica washers. 

Ignition, Catalytic. This method of ignition 
for gas or oil engines is based on the property 
possessed by spongy platinum of becoming incan¬ 
descent when in contact with coal gas or car¬ 
bureted air. With this means of ignition, speed 
regulation or variation can only be had within 
very narrow limits. The principal objections to 
its extended use are, danger of premature ignition, 
lack of speed control and difficulty of starting the 
motor. 

Ignition, Forms of. The earlier forms of gas 
engines built had the compressed charge ignited 
by means of a flame, which has, however, now 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 133 


given place to the three following methods of 
ignition: 

Hot surface. 

Hot tube. 

Electric. 

The first-named form of ignition is illustrated 
in Figure 42. In this form the heated walls 
of the vaporizer act as the igniter, aided by the 
heat generated during the compression of the 
gases. The chamber being first heated, after¬ 
ward the proper temperature is maintained by 
the heat caused by the combustion of the gases. 
Various other devices in which heat is maintained 
to cause self or spontaneous ignition are now 
made. 

The second type, that of the hot tube, is 
shewn in Figure 19 at P. This form of ignition 
consists of a metal tube fitted into the vapor¬ 
izer or cylinder wall. It is closed at one end, 
the other end being open to the cylinder. It 
is . heated by a Bunsen flame over part of its 
length. When compression due to the inward 
stroke of the piston takes place in the cylinder 
the explosive mixture is compressed into the tube 
and is ignited by coming in contact with the 
heated portion of it. Nickel-steel tubes are 
preferable to wrought iron, although both are 
used for this purpose. 

The third form, that of electric ignition, is of 
two kinds, the primary make and break, with 


134 GAS and oil engine hand-book 


which a mechanical device to make the primary 
circuit in the combustion chamber of the motor is 
used, and the secondary or jump-spark form of 
ignition, in which the spark jumps or arcs within 
the cylinder without the aid of any mechanical 
device. 

Ignition Mechanism. A form of ignition 
mechanism used in connection with the primary 
make and break system of electrical ignition is 

i 1 ] u s t r a ted in 
Figure 30. Up¬ 
on the operating 
rod being moved 
to the left, the 
pawl carried by 
the upper arm 
of the bell-crank 
lever forces 
downward the 
FIG. 30 small trigger 

Ignition mechanism for use in connection 
with a primary make and break spark. 

outer end of the 

movable electrode and in this manner passes 
by it. Upon the return stroke of the operating 
rod the upper end of the pawl engages with the 
trigger, bringing the contact-points of the movable 
and fixed electrode together for a short period of 
time. A further movement of the operating 10 a 
in the same direction causes the trigger to be 
released from contact with the pawl. This 


carried upon the 













GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 135 


action causes the contact-points of the electrodes 
to suddenly fly apart and a spark or arc is pro¬ 
duced between them. 

The make-and-break system is used princh* 
pally in stationary and portable gasoline en¬ 
gines of medium or slow speed, where the mov¬ 
able terminal with a stationary are located with¬ 
in the ignition chamber, and by actuation from 
outside mechanism the movable igniter point 
makes regular successive contacts and separa¬ 
tions with the stationary terminal, thus serving 
as both igniter point or terminal and circuit 
breaker. It also uses a simple primary spark 
coil. 

The jump spark system is used principally 
on automobiles and other high speed gasoline 
motors, and carries its current through an in¬ 
duction coil to a jump spark plug screwed into 
the cylinder with both terminals stationary and 
standing apart with only a slight gap between 
and with a circuit breaker attached to some 
other part of the engine mechanism. 

The primary coil is not commonly known as 
an induction coil, although it is referred to as 
having self-induction. 

While the jump spark coil serves its purpose 
by inducing a current in its secondary coil, the 
primary, or make-and-break coil, has only a 
single coil of wire around a soft iron core. 

The jump spark, or induction coil, has always 
two separate and distinct coils. The one next 
to the soft iron core is called the primary and 


136 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

the one wound around the primary, though not 
connected with it but insulated from it is the 
secondary coil. 

Testing the Coil. If a coil fails to work, the 
trouble may be in wiring from coil to battery. 
Test by carrying wires direct from coil to bat¬ 
teries; then if it works right, the fault must 
have been either in the wiring or commutator 
(timer), but if it still fails to work, examine 
the platinum points for dirt or pitting; in this 
case remove vibrator and file the points flat and 
even with a fine file; do not have the hammer 
spring too stiff. Adjust the contact screw so 
that the platinums have a space between them 
of about the thickness of an ordinary card. 

If vibrator operates but does not produce a 
spark, if there is much spark at the platinums, 
it is an indication that the condenser in the 
coil is poorly or wrongly connected or one of 
the platinum points is gone; in either case there 
will be a weak spark. If the vibrator works 
and there is no spark there must be a short- 
circuit or break in the secondary of the coil. 
If there is battery current up to the coil ter¬ 
minals and vibrator does not work, there is a 
break in the primary coil or dirt on platinum. 
If a spark is produced at battery terminals of 
the coil, but no vibrating, and the spark con¬ 
tinues when the top contact screw is removed, 
there is a short circuit in the primary winding. 
Defects in the secondary and primary windings 
should be corrected by the manufacturer of the 
-coil. 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND BOOK 137 


When a good spark is obtained at the end of 
secondary wire and none or a poor spark at the 
plug, the point or points need adjusting or the 
spark plug is short-circuited. 

The mission of the coil is to transform the 
low pressure electricity in the batteries to high 
tension current. 

If the coil is in good condition it is easily ad¬ 
justed by experimenting with the set screws. 
Contact points are often ruined by too stiff an 
adjustment or by too many batteries. Have the 
least tension possible with good results. 

A spark that shows fat and strong in the open 
air may be found too weak when exposed to the 
pressure of several atmospheres in a gas engine 
cylinder. A spark strong enough to jump an 
eighth of an inch may be able to jump only 
half that far under pressure. Spark plug points 
should be about one-thirty-second of an inch 
apart and must be kept clean to give good serv¬ 
ice. 

To test a plug for short-circuiting or other 
trouble, unscrew it from cylinder and lay it on 
the cylinder head wired as before. With sw T itch 
on, turn engine over to firing point and note if 
you have a good spark. Remember that under 
these conditions the spark must be large and 
hot, for it will not be so strong in the cylinder, 
where the pressure is much greater. 

The timer works in conjunction with the plug 
and coil, and causes the spark to occur at the 
right moment. The contact points in the timer 


138 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


must be kept clean, and the box packed with 
good grease. 

Wiring often causes trouble due to the use of 
an inferior quality or the wrong kind. Always 
use the best wire; it does not cost much more 
than the cheap kind and is far less expensive in 
the end. The secondary wire should always be 
large, for it offers much less resistance. This 
does not apply to the insulation, and you must 
not judge the wire by the size of the insulation. 
That, of course, is necessary, but the copper is 
what counts. Never use lamp cord, electric light 
or telephone wires under any condition. The 
ends of all wires should be protected by copper 
terminal connections. These are inexpensive, 
and insure a positive connection besides present¬ 
ing a very neat effect. 

It is important to use large wire for the pri¬ 
mary circuit, but not as large as that used for 
the secondary. 

Testing Batteries . Weak batteries cause more 
trouble in the gas engine than any other factor. 
There is but one remedy. If storage batteries 
are used, they will have to be recharged, and if 
dry cells, they will have to be replaced by new 
ones. 

Possibly all dry cells may not be low; this 
can readily be ascertained by testing the cells 
separately. If they show less than eight am¬ 
peres, they should be replaced. New cells should 
show about one and a half volts and twenty 
amperes each at least. Be sure always to have 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 139 


the cell nearest the coil strong, for if this one is 
weak it will exhaust the others. 

Storage cells should always be tested with a 
voltmeter, and each should develop about two 
volts. If less, they should be recharged. A 6- 
volt 6CLampere storage battery is generally the 
best size to use with the jump spark system. 

Remember to adjust the coil immediately after 
connecting new batteries; for if this is not done 
there is danger of burning contact points, due 
to the vibrator screw being set too fine. This 
needed adjustment is easily explained; when the 
batteries become w T eak it is necessary to tighten 
up the contact screws on coils. 

Do not make the common mistake of using 
batteries according to their voltage strength 
when not in service. 

Ignition Dynamo. Batteries have not 
proven entirely satisfactory with either high or 
low-tension ignition systems, the current being 
subject to a gradual weakening as the batteries 
become exhausted. 

This led to the development of the ignition 
dynamo, which is simply a machine for convert¬ 
ing mechanical into electrical energy, and con¬ 
sists of some insulated wire wound on a shaft¬ 
like member called an armature, which is rotated 
in a magnetic field, this movement producing an 
electric current in the wire which, according to 
the construction of the machine, may be either 
of the high or low-tension variety. 

A typical low-tension dynamo is shown in Fig- 


140 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 



Illustrating basic principles of the dynamo. 

upper brush G and the segments EE of the 
commutator. 

The armature core on which the winding F, 
consisting of many turns of wire, is wound is 
not shown for the sake of clearness, but it will 
be understood that it, together with the wire, 


ure 31. The pole pieces A and B are made from 
soft iron and are wound with field coils consist¬ 
ing of many turns of wire, as indicated at C 
and D. This winding is connected in series with 
the winding F of the armature by means of the 

































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 141 

revolves in a space between the pole pieces, com¬ 
monly known as the field, and when the arma¬ 
ture is turned at a fair rate of speed a current 
of electricity will be produced, which is led to 
the ordinary make-and-break igniter by means 
of the wires shown on the right of the cut. 

It is necessary that the armature be rotating 
rapidly before sufficient current will be produced 
to flow through the coils C and D to magnetize 
the pole pieces and produce a field for the arma¬ 
ture, so the machine can generate a current suf¬ 
ficiently strong for ignition purposes; therefore 
this type of machine must run at least 300 
r. p. m., and it is sometimes difficult to attain 
this when starting the engine. From 1,000 to 
1,500 r. p. m. is the average running speed neces¬ 
sary to give the best results. 

As the machine must build up, as it were, 
the length of time during which the igniter 
points are closed together is of considerable im¬ 
portance, for during this period the current 
flows in the circuit and builds up the magnetism 
of the pole pieces, thereby increasing the 
strength of the current generated. When the 
igniter points separate, the flow of stored-up 
energy is suddenly interrupted, and this energy 
dissipates itself in the form of a spark. 

This type of machine is usually driven by a 
small friction w T heel adapted to bear against the 
face or side of the engine flywheel. A governor 
is interposed between the friction wheel and the 
dynamo, so that when the speed is excessive the 


142 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


friction wheel will be drawn away from the fly¬ 
wheel and the speed decreased. It is also possi¬ 
ble to use a belt, or multiplying gears. The 
most common method, however, is the friction- 
driven. 

As most engines are hard to turn over by 
hand, and can only be turned over slowly, it is 
obvious that with dynamos of this type it would 
be very hard to start the engine, so the dynamo, 
a set of batteries and coil are connected up as 
shown in Figure 32, and the engine started on 



FIG. 32 


Showing connections for ignition, dynamo, battery and spark 

coil. 

the batteries, and then, after it is started, 
switched to the dynamo. Of course, this makes 
the dynamo dependent on the battery, and in 
case the battery should fail the engine could not 
be started to put the dynamo to work. This 
method, however, will be found of great advan¬ 
tage in starting, as it saves a lot of work in 
turning the engine, and provides two sources of 
current supply—the batteries being ready in case 
the dynamo should fail. 
































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 143 


Care must be taken when using a dynamo of 
this type to see that it is properly connected to 
the engine, and that an efficient governor is 
used. 

Magnetos. The fields of a magneto are made 
of permanent magnets. Those of the dynamo 
described are electro magnets. This, then, is the 
essential difference between these two types of 
generators. The dynamo is provided with a 
field winding; that is, a coil of wire which sur¬ 
rounds the field pieces and either all or a part of 



Magneto armature. 

the current generated flows through this wind¬ 
ing. This is what generates the magnetic field 
between the pole pieces. In the magneto there 
is no winding around the field pieces. These, 
instead of being made of soft iron, are made of 
hardened steel and permanently magnetized. 
The armature is also made differently. It con¬ 
sists of an H-shaped piece of soft iron, around 
which a single continuous coil of wire is wound 
parallel with the axis. Figure 33 shows the 







144 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


simplest style of magneto armature, and Figure 
34 shows an end view of the complete machine 
assembled. 

The armature fits very closely between the 
pole pieces, having a clearance of only about 
one one-hundredth of an inch. The pole pieces 
P (Figure 36) are made of soft iron and the 
lines of force pass from the positive pole to the 



negative through the soft iron H of the arma¬ 
ture. The manner in which the current is gen¬ 
erated will now be described. 

When the armature is in the position shown 
in Figure 34 the lines of force pass from one 
pole piece to the other through the soft iron 
neck of the armature, since that is the only path 
they can travel. The brass plate at the bottom 

















GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 145 


is not a conductor of magnetism and no liues of 
magnetism can pass from one pole to the other 
through it. The armature acts just like the 
keeper or flat piece of iron that is laid across the 
ends of a horseshoe magnet. When the arma¬ 
ture is not in position the lines of force will 



pass through the air along the lines of least 
resistance, through a-a or b-b. But the greater 
number will pass between the points b-b, since 
these are the nearest together. When the arma¬ 
ture is in the position shown in Figure 34, all 
of them will pass through the neck of the arma¬ 
ture, as before stated. 

When the armature is turned to the position 
shown in Figure 35, the lines of force are dis¬ 
torted, as shown, but still flow through the neck 
N. But when the armature is turned still far- 









146 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

ther, so that N stands vertical, as in Figure 36, 
the lines of force no longer flow through N , but 
take two paths, one across a-a , the other b-b, 
fiip^e these are the paths of least resistance. 



When the lines of force are flowing through 
the neck N, as in Figure 34, the soft iron core 
is strongly magnetized, but when the armature 
revolves to the position of Figure 36, N is de¬ 
magnetized. In this way the magnetism of the 
armature varies from a maximum, when the 
neck N is horizontal, to almost nothing when it 
is vertical. 

While the strength of the current is in some 
respects dependent on the speed of this machine, 
it is not nearly so much so as with the wire 
wound type of Figure 31, as the strength of the 
permanent magnets is always at its maximum 
















GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 147 

and the speed of the armature does not affect 
it; therefore, at a comparatively low speed the 
magneto will give its maximum current. 

As the strength of the magnets does not in¬ 
crease with the speed, it is impossible to gen¬ 
erate sufficient current to burn out the machine. 
The commutator and brushes are also necessary,, 
and the result is a machine of the simplest possi¬ 
ble construction. 

Current of this description is called alternat¬ 
ing, and Figure 37 illustrates the wave of cur¬ 
rent of this kind produced by one complete revo¬ 
lution of the armature. On the left, for the 
sake of illustration, are figures representing the 



FIG. 37 


current strength or voltage, while the points 1 
and 2 along the curved lines represent the posi¬ 
tions of the armature shown in Figures 34 and 
36. Starting at the heavy horizontal lines, 
where there is no current, the upper heavy 
curved line represents one-half of the revolution 
of the armature, and the curved line below the 
horizontal line, the other half revolution. 

From this it will be seen that the current flows 
first in one direction and then the other, the 
















148 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


strength increasing from O to 1, then decreas¬ 
ing to 2, as the wire at this point is no longer 
subject to the lines of force. The current then 
increases to 3, in the opposite, and again de¬ 
creases to O. 

From a study of this figure it will be seen 
that the current is strongest when the armature 
is in a certain position; this point is called the 
peak of the current, and there are two peaks 
for each revolution of the armature. The mag¬ 
neto must be so timed in relation to the spark¬ 
ing moment of the engine that the igniter will 
operate to produce the spark at the same instant 
the armature is at the peak; this is termed 
timing the magneto, and it is very important 
that this be accurately accomplished. This 
timing necessitates some positive mechanical 
means of driving the magneto, and will not per¬ 
mit the use of belts or friction pulleys, or any 
intermediate device, such as a governor, for it is 
evident that anything liable to throw the mag¬ 
neto out of time with the engine would result 
in the igniter points being separated when the 
armature is in an intermediate position—say f * 
midway between O and the peak, and it is obvi¬ 
ous that the current strength is not at its maxi¬ 
mum and the spark would be too weak. 

A well-designed and properly-constructed 
magneto should last as long as the engine, if the 
alternating current type without field coils, com¬ 
mutator or brushes is used, as this is a very sim¬ 
ple machine, and when equipped with balf bear¬ 
ings there is practically nothing to wear. 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 149 


In testing the alternating current magneto, 
disconnect all wires, and place the fingers 
slightly moistened—on the terminals of the mag¬ 
neto to which the wires connect. A smart shock 
should be felt, and if this is the case the mag¬ 
neto is O. K. 

While running, a piece of wire can be con¬ 
nected to one terminal, and then quickly tapped 
on the other, and if this is done at the right in¬ 
stant (when the magneto is at the peak) a bright 
spark should be produced. 


s^zzzzz^Ezzzzzzzzzzzzzz 


Vaporizer 



{,>>>>> > 1 n t j l lsxT/ 


FIG. 38 


Hornsby-Akroyd system of ignition. 

; Ignition by Compression. In the Diesel oil 
engine a charge of air is drawn into the cylinder 
on the aspirating or charging stroke, but no 
fuel. This air is compressed to a very high 
pressure, usually above five hundred pounds per 
square inch. When air is compressed so strongly 
the work done upon it is transformed into heat 
and its temperature rises very high. If now 
when the piston reaches the end of its stroke a 
jet of oil is pumped in, this oil will be ignited 

























150 gas and oil engine hand-book 

by the hot air and no other form of igniter 
will be needed. A governor attached to the 
pump regulates the time during the power stroke 
that the oil jet is admitted, which generally does 
not exceed one-tenth of the stroke. 

Figure 38 shows the method of igniting the 
charge in the Hornsby-Akroyd oil engine. The 
chamber at the left of the cylinder is not water 
jacketed. It is first heated by an auxiliary 
burner to a red heat. Then when the piston 
makes its first outward stroke the air is drawn 
into the cylinder and a thin jet of kerosene is 
forced into the hot chamber and is instantly 
vaporized. On the compression stroke the air 
is forced back through the narrow neck into the 
vaporizing chamber, where it mixes with the 
fuel. Ignition is caused by the heating effects 
of compression, # friction and the heat of the 
vaporizer. At first thought it might be sup¬ 
posed that when the oil first enters the vaporizer 
it would be ignited, but this cannot occur, be¬ 
cause it has no air to combine with. The air 
that is entering the cylinder during the charg¬ 
ing stroke is moving toward the rear of the 
cylinder away from the fuel. On the compres¬ 
sion stroke this air is forced into the chamber 
with the fuel, and when the compression stroke 
is nearly completed the air has mixed with the 
vaporized fuel sufficiently to cause an explosive 
mixture and ignition takes place. A governor 
controls the stroke of the pump and allows the 
correct amount of oil to be delivered to maintain 
the speed of the engine. 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 151 


There are no means for changing the time of 
ignition. This engine is adapted for using kero¬ 
sene or heavier oils. 

Ignition, Reason for Advancing Point of. 

It may be well to explain, without entering into 
theoretical details, that when an engine is running 
at normal speed the ignition mechanism is so set 
that ignition takes place slightly before the piston 
reaches the end of its compression stroke. 

If the charge is fired at or after the end of the 
compression stroke, the average pressure on the 
piston, and consequently the power, is decreased 
in proportion. Therefore to ensure perfect com¬ 
bustion with a maximum pressure at the com¬ 
mencement of the explosion stroke, the point of 
ignition must be earlier, and advance as the 
speed increases. 

Indicator Diagrams. The thermal or heat 
efficiency of a gas or oil engine may be deter¬ 
mined from an indicator diagram, which gives a 
representation of the internal conditions through¬ 
out the entire cycle of operations. The diagram 
tells many things essential to be known. 

It gives the initial explosive pressure, or the 
pressure a moment after ignition has taken place. 
It shows whether the volume of the charge is 
diminished during the period of admission. It 
gives the point of ignition, when the ignition is 
complete and when expansion begins. It indi¬ 
cates the pressure of expansion during the work- 


152 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

ing stroke. It gives the terminal pressure when 
the exhaust is opened. It shows the rapidity of 
the exhaust. It indicates the back-pressure on 
the piston, due to the exhaust. It shows the 
point of opening of the exhaust. It gives the 
mean power used in driving the motor. It also 
indicates any leakage of valves or piston. 

The usual method of ascertaining the area of 
an indicator diagram is by means of an instru¬ 
ment known as a planimeter, which is used to 
calculate the area of any irregular surface, by 
moving a tracing point attached to the instru¬ 
ment over the entire irregular boundary line of 
the figure. 

But for the purpose of ascertaining the horse¬ 
power of an engine it will be sufficiently accurate 
to illustrate the principles involved, to calculate 
the area of the diagram by means of ordinates or 
vertical measurements. 

The upper drawing in Figure 38a represents 
a card taken from an engine of 4 inches bore and 
6 inches stroke, at 600 revolutions per minute, 
and under a full load. The diagram is divided 
into 1‘2 parts as shown by vertical lines, the 
lengths of which are in terms of the spring, 
which is 100. Then 1.90+1.36+1.00, etc., 
divided by 12, equals 0.665 as the average height 
of the diagram. Its length is 6 inches, as shown, 
therefore the area of the card is approximately 
3.99 square inches. As the initial explosive force 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 153 

from the diagram is 250 pounds per square inch, 
and a 100 indicator spring used, the height of 
the card is 250 divided by 100, which equals 
2j inches as the height of the card. The mean 
effective pressure on the piston in pounds per 



Indicator diagrams, showing cards with engine at full and 

at half load. 

square inch will therefore be equal to the area of 
the diagram 3.99, divided by the area of the 
whole card, which is 2jX6, equals 15, and multi¬ 
plied by 250, the initial explosive force, or 
3.99X250, and divided by 15, equals 66.5 pounds; 


















154 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


per square inch as the mean effective pressure 
required. 

h rom this the indicated horsepower of the 
engine can readily be found as follows: 

Let M.P be the mean effective pressure in 
pounds per square inch, A the area of the cylin¬ 
der in square inches, S the stroke of the piston in 
inches, N the number of explosions per minute, 
and H.P the indicated horsepower, then 

H m.px AXSXN 

396,000 

__ 66.5 X 12.56 X 6 X 300 

396,000 = 3 ' 79 

as the required indicated horsepower of the 
engine. The indicated horsepower of any engine 
will always be greater than that obtained from a 
brake test, as it simply represents the actual 
thermo-dynamic (heat-pressure) conditions within 
the cylinder, and takes no account of friction and 
other external losses. 

The lower drawing in Figure 38a is a card 

taken from the same engine running under half 
load. 

Indicator, Use of the. An indicator consists 
of a cylinder within which works a piston under 
the tension of a helical spring of predetermined 
strength. The rod attached to the piston carries 
a pivoted arm which works on a horizontal lever. 
This lever carries a pencil bearing against a 







GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 155 

drum. This drum is so arranged with a spring 
that it may be partially rotated by the pull on an 
attached string. A sheet of paper is wound on 
the drum and held in place by spring clips. The 
pressure in the cylinder acting on the spring 
causes the pencil to mark the paper, the indicator 
card or diagram being traced by the forward and 
backward movement of the drum. 

Inspecting Gas or Oil Engines. Before 
examining an engine with a light, care should be 
taken that the combustion chamber is free from 
gas mixture. This can be done by turning the 
engine round a few times. The ignition should 
be cut out and the fuel supply cock closed. It is 
more or less dangerous to look down the chimney 
of the ignition tube when the engine is running. 

It is sometimes necessary to inspect the interior 
of the engine cylinder with a lighted candle, for 
the purpose of locating some sharp projection, 
burnt carbon, crack or sand hole, etc. When 
doing this, always remember that a charge of 
fuel may remain in the cylinder, and whether the 
candle is inserted through one of the valve ports 
or the open end of the cylinder, be sure to keep 

the face away from the opening. 

Installing a Gas or Oil Engine. Secure the 
engine to a good foundation made according to 
the plans furnished by the engine builder. 

Set up the water tank at any convenient dis¬ 
tance from the engine, preferably as close as 


156 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

possible on tbe exhaust side. Use short pieces 
of rubber hose in the cooling tank piping. Put 
the shut-off valve close to the tank. Be sure that 
the vent pipe is long enough to be above the top 
of the tank. Water should always be at least 
6 inches above the upper pipe or it will not 
circulate. 

The water tank may be dispensed with by 
connecting a water feed pipe direct from a 
hydrant to the opening in exhaust valve chamber 
and running a waste pipe from top of cylinder 
jacket to carry off the water. 

Regulate the amount of water by means of a 
stopcock placed in this pipe. 

Keep the cylinder jacket just as hot as can be 
borne by the hand, say from 140 to 160 degrees 
Fahrenheit. 

The fuel tank may be placed outside of the 
building and should be in a vertical position, 
twelve to eighteen inches lower than the top of 
the foundation, so that the fuel will flow from 
engine to tank. Care should be taken to wash' 
out every piece of pipe with gasoline before con¬ 
necting up, this removes all dirt and scale which 
would interfere with the proper working of the 
check valves. Extra care should be taken in 
making all water and fuel pipe connections 
tight. Use soap in the joints of the fuel pipes. 

Run the exhaust pipe in any convenient direc¬ 
tion, placing the muffler as near the engine as 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 157 

possible. Never use a pipe smaller than the 
opening in the muffler. Long and crooked runs 
should be avoided, but if necessary use a size 
larger pipe It is not advisable to exhaust into 

a chimney. 

Long vertical pipes collect water and should 
be connected with a Tee fitting at the bottom 
provided with suitable connections for draining- 

Connect the battery cells with the spark coil, 
switch and binding posts on the engine. The 
ends of wires where the connections are made 
should have all the insulation removed and all 
nuts tightened well to insure good connections. 

Jump-spark Wiring Diagram. A method of 
wiring for a single cylinder engine using a set of 
batteries and a magneto-generator is illustrated 
in Figure S9. By moving the switch-finger, 
either the magneto-generator or the battery may 
be used as desired, or both cut out. 

Knocking or Pounding in an Engine. May 
be due to any of the following causes: 

Premature ignition: The sound produced by 
premature ignition may be described as a deep, 

heavy pound. 

Using a poor grade of lubricating oil will cause 
premature ignition. The carbon from the oil 
will deposit on the head of the piston in cakes 
and lumps, and will not only increase the com¬ 
pression but will get hot after running a short 
time and will ignite the charge too early, and 


158 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 




























































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 159 

thereby produce the same effect as advancing the 
spark too much. If this is the cause the pound¬ 
ing will cease as soon as the carbon deposit is 
removed from the combustion chamber. 

Badly worn or broken piston-rings. 

Improper valve seating. 

A badly worn piston. 

Piston striking some projecting point in the 

combustion chamber. 

A loose wrist-pin in the piston. 

A loose journal-box cap or lock-nut. 

A broken spoke or web in the flywheel. 

Plywheel loose on its shaft. 

If the sparking device be placed so as to bo 
exactly in the center of the combustion space an 
objectionable knock occurs, which has never 
been fully explained. In some engines it renders 
a particular position of the ignition unusable, 
this form of knock disappears either on making 
a slight advance or retardation of the ignition. 

If the cylinder is in good condition, and a 
bumping noise is heard when working at full 
load, it may arise ffom too much oil being sup¬ 
plied to the engine, which should be regulated 

accordingly. 

Explosions occurring during the exhaus or 
admission stroke. This is almost always due to 
a previous misfire, and it may be prevented by 
stopping the misfires. 

If the ignition is so timed that the gases reach 


160 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

their full explosion pressure during the compres¬ 
sion stroke, that is, if the spark be unduly 
advanced, an ugly knock occurs, and great pres¬ 
sure is developed on the crank-pin bearing, wrist 
pm, and connecting-rod. The effect may be the 
bending or distorting of the connecting-rod. 

The crank-pin may not be at right angles to 
the connecting-rod. This cause of knock is often 
hard to find. 

The bearingc at either end of connecting-rod 
may be loose. A knock during the explosion 
stroke, and also at each reversal of the direction 
of the piston. 

If the crank shaft is not perfectly at right 
angles to the connecting-rod, the crank shaft and 
flywheels will travel sideways so as to strike the 
crank shaft bearings on one side or the other. 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 161 

Lauson Heavy-Duty Kerosene Engine.— 

This engine is of the vertical four-cylinder type, 
designed primarily to operate on kerosene oil, 
although it may be operated on power distillate, 
or gasoline. Figure 39 a shows a vertical cross- 
section through one cylinder and the frame. The 
fuel is admitted to the cylinders by means of 
poppet inlet valves located in the cylinder heads. 
These valves, as will be seen from Figure 39 a, 
are operated by overhead tappets which receive 
their motion from a camshaft. The products of 
combustion are exhausted from the cylindeis by 
means of exhaust valves also located in the cyl¬ 
inder heads and operated by the same camshaft. 

Fuel Feeding Devices .—The Lauson engine 
is equipped with a fuel feeding device, of the 
Venturi atomizer type, a sectional view of which 
is shown in Figure 39b. The principle of this 
device is to maintain a uniformly high velocity of 
air through a Venturi tube (see D, Figure 39b), 
having radial holes in its restricted portion 
through which fuel is admitted by suction. The 
governor acts directly upon a two-ported barrel 
valve .whose ports coincide with ports in the valve 
housing when the engine is at rest. See F, Fig 
ure 39b. When the engine has attained full 
speed, the barrel valve is rotated by the governor, 
thereby closing the low^er port and decreasing the 
amount of fuel and air admitted into the cylinder. 
At the same time the upper port is also closed, 
deflecting more air through the nozzle and mam- 


162 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 



FIG. 39a 


Cross section of Lauson heavy-duty kerosene engine 
























































































































































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 163 

taining practically a constant velocity of air at 
this point. Adjustment for no load and full 
load is made by means of a fuel needle valve in 
conjunction with a butterfly valve located in the 
air inlet. A separate atomizer is provided for 
each cylinder. A water feed is provided for the 



FIG. 39b 

Venturi atomizer type fuel feeder 


purpose of preventing premature ignition when 

the engine is on full load. 

Structural Details.—The following details are 
furnished by the builders ; John Lauson Co., New 
Holstein, Wis.: The crank shaft cut from the 
solid billet is carried in five bearings in the engine 
proper in addition to an outboard bearing to 
counteract the weight of the generator or belt 


























164 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

pull. The main bearings, which are removable 
without disturbing the crank case, may be ad¬ 
justed for wear, while the engine is running by 
means of bolts passing to the outside of the crank 
case as shown in Figure 39a. 

The ciank case, in which are enclosed all work- 
ing parts such as gears, cams, gears for driving 
the governor and magneto, is of the two-piece 

type, split horizontally at the center of the crank¬ 
shaft. 

Extra large water space and cleanout plates 
are given to the cylinders, the bore of which is 
ground after seasoning to eliminate warping. 
The heads of these cylinders, any one of which 
may be removed without disturbing any other, 
are completely water jacketed and carry the 
valves which seat directly against it, thereby 
bringing the water in close contact with the valve 
heads and avoid an undue heating of those 
members. 

The pistons used in these engines are of the 
barrel type with four rings, three on the extreme 
upper end and one on the extreme lower end, and 
are ground to accurate size. 

Forged steel connecting rods fitted with a bab¬ 
bitted steel marine type box on the lower end and 
a phosphor bronze takeup box on the upper end, 
both having exceedingly large wearing surfaces] 
are employed. 

Like the main crank, the cam shaft is carried 
in the crank case by five bronze bearings and has 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 165 

mounted upon and keyed to it the exhaust inlet 
and- igniter cams of each cylinder. The timing 
gears are also within the crank case and are held 
in position on the shaft by means of a taper fit 
and key. 

The cam shaft for operating the valves is 
carried in five bronze bearings within the crank 
case. The cams for each cylinder, viz.: exhaust, 
inlet and igniter, are integral, and keyed to the 
cam shaft. The push rods acting upon the valve 
tappets are provided with hardened sides which 
are fitted with rollers for contact with the cams. 
The tappet levers are adjustable for wear. 

Speed Regulation .—Governing is accom¬ 
plished by an enclosed vertical type of flyball gov¬ 
ernor driven from a bevel gear on the cam shaft. 
The speed of the engine may be adjusted while 
running, by shortening or lengthening the rod 
from the governor to the regulation valves. 

Ignition .—The system of ignition employed 
on the Lauson kerosene engine is of the standard 
make and break type, and is arranged with two 
timing adjustments, one individual, and one 
simultaneous. The latter adjustment is used in 
starting and is so arranged that all ignition may 
be instantly stopped by shifting the timing lever. 
Directly over the igniter is mounted an insulated 
brass bar which is charged with current from a 
gear-driven magneto. The igniters are each pro¬ 
vided with a spring coming in contact with this 
brass bar, thus eliminating wiring connections. 


166 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

Starting .—An air starter is used which admits 
compressed air into each cylinder through an 
automatic air valve in the head. Gasoline is used 
for starting purposes until the engine is up to 
full speed, when kerosene or distillate may be 
substituted. The action of the air starter is as 
follows: It consists of a main body having four 
radial air ports connected by piping to the dif¬ 
ferent cylinders. These ports are covered, and 
uncovered by a rotary disc valve having one port. 
This disc is held to its seat by the pressure of the 
air and is free to rotate when the air is shut off. 
The starter is connected to the end of the cam 
shaft by means of a flexible coupling. To start 
the engine, all that is necessary is to turn it on 
the center and open the air cock, no shifting of 
cams and gears being required. 

Cooling System .—Water for cooling the cyl¬ 
inders and cylinder heads is circulated by a pump 
mounted directly on the engine and driven by 
means of a chain and sprocket directly from the 
crank shaft. Water is admitted to the cylinder 
on one side directly in line with the lower line of 
the compression chamber, the cooling water not 
passing directly through the lower part of the 
cylinder. This system is claimed to maintain a 
practically uniform temperature throughout the 
entire length of the cylinder. Exhaust water is 
taken out ol the top of the head by means of a 
polished brass manifold. 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 167 


Lubricants. To ensure easy running and 
reduce the element of friction to a minimum it is 
absolutely necessary that all such parts should 
be supplied with oil or lubricating grease, 
but it is also a fact, not so well understood, 
that different kinds of lubricant are necessary to 
the different parts or mechanisms of an explosive 
motor. 

As the cylinder of a gas or oil engine operates 
under a far higher temperature than is possible 
in a steam engine, consequently the oil intended 
for use in these cylinders must be of such quality 
that the point at which it will burn or carbonize 
from heat is as high as possible. 

While a number of animal and vegetable oils 
have a flashing-point, and yield a fire test suffi¬ 
ciently high to come within the above require¬ 
ments, they all contain acids or other substances 
which have a harmful effect on the metal surfaces 

it is intended to lubricate. 

The general qualities essential in a lubricating 
oil for use in gas or oil engine cylinders include a 
flashing-point of not less than 360 degrees 
Fahrenheit, and fire test of at least 420 degrees, 
together with a specific gravity of 25.8. 

At 350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit, lubricating 
oils are as fluid as kerosene, therefore the adjust¬ 
ment of the feed should be made when the lubii- 
cator and its contents are at their normal heat. 
Steam engine oils are unsuitable for the dry heat 


168 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

of motor cylinders in which they are decomposed 
whilst the tar is deposited. 

All oils will carbonize at 500 to 600 degrees 
Fahrenheit, but graphite is not affected by over 
2,000 degrees Fahrenheit, which is the approxi¬ 
mate temperature of the burning gases in an 
explosive engine. The cylinder of these engines 
may attain an average temperature of 300 to 
400 degrees Fahrenheit. So that graphite would 
be very useful if it could be introduced into the 
engine cylinder without danger of clogging the 
valves and could be fed uniformly. These diffi¬ 
culties have not vet been overcome. 

* 

The film of oil between a shaft and its bearing 
is under a pressure corresponding to the load on 
the bearing, and is drawn in against that pres¬ 
sure by the shaft. It might not be thought 
possible that the velocity of the shaft and the 
adhesion of the oil to the shaft could produce a 
sufficient pressure to support a heavy load, but 
the fact may be verified by drilling a hole in the 
bearing and attaching a pressure gauge. 

Lubrication of Oil Engine Cylinders. On 
account of the rapid decomposition of the lubri¬ 
cating oil in gasoline and kerosene engine cylin¬ 
ders, it is very important that an oil should be 
selected which does not vaporize or carbonize 
easily and leave much residue. A pressure sight- 
feed lubricator should be employed, and no more 
lubricating oil used than is absolutely necessary. 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 169 


For some reason gasoline and kerosene engines 
give more trouble in this connection than gas 
engines. One reason is that the hydrocarbon 
vapor of an oil engine affects the lubricating oil 
in a different manner to the explosive mixture of 
a gas engine. 

Lubrication, Over or Improper. Smoke 
coming from the exhaust of a gas or oil engine is 
due to one of two conditions: Over-lubrication— 
too much lubricating oil being fed to the cylinder 
of the engine—or too rich a mixture, that is, too 
much gasoline and an insufficient supply of air. 

The first condition may be readily detected by 
the smell of burned oil and a yellowish smoke. 
The second, by a dense white smoke accom¬ 
panied by a pungent odor. 

If the engine is working properly, the exhaust 
should be almost colorless or with a light blue 
haze. The oil used should be of the highest flash¬ 
point obtainable, as the heat in a gas or oil 
engine cylinder is very dry and intense. 

The effect upon animal or vegetable oils of 
such heat would be to partially decompose the 
oils into stearic acids and oleic acid and the com 
version of these into pitch. 

Mineral oils are not so readily decomposed by 
heat, but at their boiling points they are con¬ 
verted into gas, and any oil, the boiling point of 
which is in the neighborhood of the working 
temperature of the engine cylinder, is useless, as 



170 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


its body is too greatly reduced to leave an effect¬ 
ive working film on the cylinder walls. 

Lubricators. Always ascertain from the 
builder of the engine how many drops of oil per 
minute are necessary for the different working 
parts of the engine. The lubricators or oil cups 
should then be set accordingly. 

It -should be remembered that in cold weather, 
when the oil is thick, a different adjustment of 
the lubricators will be necessary from that found 
suitable in warm weather. It is important that 
the lubrication should be regular, and good oil 
used, but not too much. Too much oil will foul 
the igniter points, clog the valves, and interfere 
with the quality of the explosive mixture. For 
this reason the lubricators should always be 
carefully closed when the engine is stopped. If a 
mechanical lubricator is used, examine the 
mechanism sometimes, and do not trust entirely 
to the feed. If a pressure lubricator is used, see 
that the piston or cap is tight, for if not the 
pressure will stop the lubrication. 

It is not only a question of economy in using 
a good lubricant with an engine, but also of 
increasing the net power for effective work. 
This is especially true with the gas engine, for 
we depend on the oil to make the piston and 
rings tight to hold both the compression and 
the high pressure of the explosion. 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 171 

A good oil forms an almost frictionless film 
between the surfaces of the piston, rings and 
walls of the cylinder, or between the shatt and 
the bearing, as the case may be, and thus pre¬ 
vents the metals from coming in direct contact. 

Misfiring, Causes of. Misfiring means failing 
to fire every explosive charge that the engine 
takes. 

One of the most common causes of misfiring 
is an improper mixture of gasoline and air. Too 
much air or too much gasoline will cause mis¬ 
firing. 

Batteries which are almost exhausted will give 
rise to explosions in the engine cylinder which 
seem all the more violent on account of their 
irregularity. It is perfectly useless to connect a 
set of nearly exhausted cells with a new set, 
either in series or parallel, as it will reduce the 
new cells nearly to the voltage of the exhausted 

ones. 

Examine the battery and all its connections at 
the terminals, and determine whether the battery 
is exhausted or not, or whether there are broken 
connections. It may be that the ignition contact 
points need cleaning or attention otherwise. 
Also ascertain whether the fuel is being fed to 
the engine in proper quantities. It may not be 
getting enough at each charge or perhaps too 

much. 


172 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


Misfiring will also occur from the ignition tube 
being fouled from soot or oil. 

Mixing Valve. For stationary or portable 
gasoline engines where the speed is not being 
constantly changed, mixing valves are specially 



FIG. 40 


Mixing valve for use with gasoline engine, showing air inlet-valve 
and gasoline needle-valve regulation. 


adapted. A standard type of mixing valve is 
illustrated in Figure 40. It consists of a chamber 
A, valve B, spring C, collar D, valve-stem 
guide E, cover F, gasoline inlet G, needle- 
valve H, thumb-nut J and lock-spring K. 

The gasoline is fed through a suitable pipe 

























GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 173 


from the supply tank to the opening in the seat 
of the valve. The rate of feed or flow of the 
gasoline is regulated by means of the needle- 
valve. The inductive action of the engine piston 
draws the valve from its seat and at the same 
time uncovers the opening in the valve-seat lead¬ 
ing from the gasoline supply pipe and allows of 
the flow of a small quantity of gasoline as the 
case may be. 

The gasoline mixes with the air drawn through 
the opening in the valve-seat and the friction of 
passing around the narrow space between the 
valve and its seat insures a uniform mixture of 
gasoline and air. The air is drawn through the 
mixing valve in the direction indicated by the 
arrows. 

Nordberg High Compression Oil Engine. 

—The Nordberg engine is of the two-stroke 
cycle type and resembles the Diesel engine in so 
far as concerns the method of ignition by the heat 
of the highly compressed air. The compression 
pressures are about 450 lbs. But a three-stage 
high-pressure air compressor for 1000 lbs. pres¬ 
sure for injecting and atomizing the fuel is not 
used. The fuel is injected mechanically by a 
small pump and discharges through a new type 
of atomizing head which successfully subdivides 
and atomizes the oil. The success of the engine 
is due largely to the effective working of this 
atomizing head. The elimination of the high 


174 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


pressure compressor with its intercoolers simpli¬ 
fies the installation in small plants for which these 
engines are designed. 

Ignition .—The Nordberg oil engine ignites 
its fuel on its own compression. It therefore 
requires no hot bulb, torch or other auxiliary 
ignition apparatus. 

The process of ignition is as follows: With 
the piston on the return stroke, the air entrapped 
in the cylinder is compressed to a pressure of 
approximately 450 lbs. per sq. in. and at the end 
of the stroke the charge of fuel oil is injected 
through the fuel nozzle located in the cylinder 
head and ignition occurs at once, owing to the 
high temperature of the compressed air. 

Exhaust and Scavenging .—When near the end 
of the working stroke the piston uncovers the 
exhaust ports, and after these have been opened 
a certain amount the scavenging port is also 
uncovered by the piston, and fresh air from the 
scavenging space is blown into the cylinder and 
through the exhaust openings, thus cleaning out 
the burned gases and providing fresh air for the 
next cycle. A clear understanding of the action 
taking place within the cylinder during the 
period of a cycle can be obtained by an inspec¬ 
tion of Figures 40 a and 405, both of which are 
self-explanatory. 

Fuel Supply and Regulation .—The fuel oil 
is supplied to the fuel nozzle under the required 


I 



FIG. 40a 

Longitudinal section of Nordberg high compression oil engine 

N—Fuel nozzle J—Water jacket 

E—Exhaust chamber B—Scavenging port 











































































































































176 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

pressure by means of the fuel pump driven by 
an eccentric on the crank shaft as shown in Fig¬ 
ure 406. 

The quantity of fuel required to be delivered 
to the nozzle in order to maintain a uniform speed 
is controlled by means of a centrifugal shaft gov¬ 
ernor which acts on the fuel pump through a 
rod and determines the amount of oil which is 
by-passed by the pump, or in other words the 
amount not used. The by-passed oil is discharged 
through a sight glass and gives the operator a 
quick check on the working of the oil pump. It 
is claimed by the builders, the Nordberg Manu¬ 
facturing Company of Milwaukee, Wis., that this 
method of control gives a regulation of 2 per 
cent from no load to full load. 

The fuel oil is delivered through a small pipe 
to the atomizer or nozzle, which is bolted to the 
cylinder head as shown in Figures 40a and 406. 
This device breaks up the fuel into fine particles 
and distributes it evenly over the entire section 
of the cylinder in the same manner as the fuel 
valve using highly compressed air in the Diesel 
engine. The fuel pump is a simple plunger pump 
of very strong construction. The plunger has a 
constant stroke, receiving its motion from a driv¬ 
ing cam operated by an eccentric on the crank 
shaft. The capacity of the pump is for a much 
greater quantity of oil than the engine would 
e\ei use, but, as before stated, the amount of oil 






























































































































































































































178 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

actually delivered to the fuel nozzle is always 
under the control of the shaft governor. The 
fuel pump and driving cam are located in a cast 
iron box kept filled with oil, so that the pump 
operating mechanism is continually submerged 
in oil. The pump is supplied with fuel oil from 
a reservoir fitted with compartments for the dif¬ 
ferent kinds of fuel oil to be used. This reser¬ 
voir stands at a level' sufficiently high to allow 
the fuel oil to flow by gravity to the oil pump. 
The fuel reservoir is kept supplied by means of a 
small oil pump driven from the engine. This 
pump lifts the fuel oil from the underground 
storage tank and delivers it into the reservoir. 
The overflow from this fuel reservoir can be piped 
back to the underground tank. Kerosene or dis¬ 
tillate is used in this engine only in starting, or 
when the regular fuel oil happens to be heavy or 
viscous. All that is required in order to change 
from distillate to the regular fuel oil is the turn¬ 
ing of a three way cock to the proper position. 

Starting .—The Nordberg oil engine is started 
by the admission of compressed air at a pressure 
of 250 lbs. per sq. in. into the cylinder behind the 
piston. The starting valve is of the quick open¬ 
ing type and is manipulated by the operator who 
gives the cylinder the proper charge of com¬ 
pressed air for the right portion of the stroke. 
After one or two revolutions the operator starts 
the fuel pump by means of a lever which throws 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 179 


the pump cam into connection, thus starting the 
flow of fuel oil to the cylinder. The engine 
usually fires on the third or fourth revolution. 
The compressed air required for starting is sup¬ 
plied from a steel storage tank which in turn is 
kept charged with air by means of a two-stage air 
compressor designed for a working pressure of 
250 lbs. per sq. in. and is provided with an inter¬ 
cooler. 

This air compressor may be driven by a belt 
from the engine shaft, or from an electric motor. 
It is used only for short periods when re-charging 
the air storage tank after the engine has been 
started. The method by which the scavenging 
air is supplied to the cylinder is as follows: The 
space between the piston and the front end of the 
cylinder is used as a compression space. On the 
back stroke of the piston, air is drawn into this 
space through a piston valve driven by an eccen¬ 
tric on the crank shaft. On the forward stroke 
of the piston this air is slightly compressed in 
the space between the front cylinder head and 
piston until at the end of the stioke the sca\ 
enging port is opened by the piston as described. 

Cooling System .—The cylinder is water-jack- 
eted and the jacket spaces are provided with 
hand-holes for cleaning. The quantity of water 
required for cooling varies from 4 to 7 gallons 
per brake horse power hour, depending upon the 
temperature of the water. There are no valves 


180 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


in the cylinder head to be cooled, the head being 
a simple symmetrical casting and not subject to 
cracks due to unequal expansion. One of the 
principal characteristics of this engine is the ab¬ 
sence of all valves and valve gear, there being 
but one valve on the engine, and that is the piston 
valve for the admittance of scavenging air to the 
front end of the cylinder. 

Lubrication .—The engine is provided with a 
double compartment power driven lubricating 
pump having several independent outlets. One 
compartment of the pump is supplied with cyl¬ 
inder oil and lubricates the cylinder and scav¬ 
enging valve. The other compartment is pro¬ 
vided with several outlets which lead to the vari¬ 
ous bearings of the engine. 

Oil Engine Cycle. The cycle or series of 
operations which take place in the vaporizing 
and combustion chambers of one of the usual 
forms of oil engine is illustrated in Figure 41. 
Before starting the engine the vaporizing cham¬ 
ber, shown to the left in the drawing, is brought 
to a red heat by means of a Bunsen burner, this 
heat being afterwards maintained by the combus¬ 
tion of the gases in the vaporizing chamber. 

During the suction stroke of the piston, a jet 
or spray of oil is forced through the opening in 
the nozzle at the bottom of the vaporizing cham¬ 
ber by means of a pump, and upon coming 
into contact with the hot interior of the chamber 



GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 181 


is at once transformed into vapor, at the same 
time a charge of pure air is drawn into the 
cylinder of the engine through the valve shown 
at the bottom of the combustion chamber. The 
piston then compresses the charge of air, forcing 

a portion of it 
into the vapor¬ 
izing chamber 
and as soon as 
the explosive 
charge has 
reached the 
proper degree 
of temperature 
spontaneous or 
self-igni tion 
takes place. 

Oil Vapori¬ 
zation, Meth¬ 
ods of. Oil en¬ 
gines have two 
methods of va- 



FlG. 41 


porization, one Cycle oroil «£& 
in which the oil 

is injected directly into the cylinder and the 
other where it is drawn in with the air. The 
mixture of oil vapor and air being carried on by 
compression in the cylinder, ignition is caused by 
an electric or tube igniter. The heat from the 
exhaust is sometimes utilized to raise,the temper- 






























































182 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

ature of the chamber through which the oil 
passes to the cylinder, which, with the heat 
caused by compression, is sufficient to cause 
vaporization and a proper mixing with the air to 
form an explosive mixture, the chamber, which 
is heated by the exhaust in operation, being first 
heated bv a burner. 

4 / 

The different types of vaporizers may be 
classed as follows: 

A vaporizer into which the charge of oil is 
injected by a spraying nozzle connected to the 
combustion chamber through a valve. 

A vaporizer into which the oil is injected, 
together with a small volume of air, the greater 
volume of air entering the cylinder through a 
separate valve. 

A vaporizer into which the oil and all the air 
supply is drawn, but without a spraying device. 

A form of vaporizer into which the oil is 
injected directly, air first being drawn into the 
cylinder by means of a separate valve, the explo¬ 
sive mixture being formed only with the com¬ 
pression. 

Oil Vaporizer, Crude. On the Pacific coast 
crude oil is new largely used for fuel. In many 
instances the ciude oil is vaporized in a separate 
apparatus and is then used in an ordinary gas 
engine. This apparatus is usually separate from 
the engine, the oil being entirely vaporized before 
it reaches the engine. Such vaporizing apparatus 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 183 

are made by various manufacturers, but in gen¬ 
eral principle they are similar. I he heat of the 
exhaust gases from the engine is utilized to heat 
the vaporizer into which the crude oil is intro¬ 
duced, where it is converted into gas. 

The fuel to be vaporized enters a ribbed 
chamber through suitable openings, and the gas 
is drawn from the chamber through a separate 
connection to the engine cylinder. The exhaust 
gases from the engine are connected to an outer 
chamber and pass around, heating the inner 
chamber to a temperature necessary for vaporiza¬ 
tion. Provision is made to draw off the residue 
of the crude oil, which is not capable of vapor¬ 
ization, and provision is also made to cleanse the 
vaporizing chamber of deposits of carbon and 
other non-combustible matter. 

Oil Vaporizers. The usual form of oil vapor- 
izers consists of a heated chamber in which the 
charge of oil is transformed into vapor before 
being mixed with the air in the cylinder of the 

engine. 

Vaporizers vary considerably in their construc¬ 
tion and operation. 

In some the oil strikes the air as it enters, in 
others a pump forces a jet of oil against the sides 
of the vaporizing chamber and is in this manner 
broken up into spray and mixed with the hot air, 

which rapidly vaporizes it. 

A form of oil vaporizer is illustrated in 


184 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


Figure 42 , in which the charge of oil is sprayed 
directly into the vaporizing chamber by means of 



FIG. 42 

Vaporising chamber of oil engine, showing the flanges or ribs in 
the chamber and oil feed to the vaporizing chamber. 


a pump, the oil passing to the chamber through 
the small pipe shown in the left-hand view in the 
drawing. 

Overheating, Causes of. The effect of over¬ 
heating is to burn up the lubricating oil in the 
cylinder. This causes a smell of burning and an 
odor of hot metal. There is sometimes a slight 

smoke and the engine will make a knocking 
sound. 

A simple test in the case of an overheated 
engine is to let a few drops of water fall on the 
head of the cylinder. If it sizzles for a few 
moments the overheating is not bad, but if the 

Tvater at once turns into steam, the case is 
serious. 

As soon as any of the above symptoms are 
noticed: 






























GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 185T- 

The engine should be stopped at once. 

Kerosene should be copiously injected into the 
cylinder and the engine turned by hand to . free 
the piston-rings. 

Insufficient lubrication increases the friction 
between the piston and cylinder, and so generates 
extra heat. Bad or unsuitable lubricating oil maw 
have the same effect. 

Too rich a mixture also causes increased 
heat. 

Pistons. The piston used in a gasoline engine 
cylinder is usually of the single-acting or trunk 
type. It is made of an iron casting which is a 
good working fit in the cylinder. Around the 
upper end of the piston three or four grooves are 
cut, and in these grooves the piston-rings fit. 
The rings are made of cast iron, and the bore of 
the ring being eccentric to its outer diameter, 
there is a certain amount of spring in them, and 
so pressure is caused against the cylinder wall, 
preventing any of the expanding gases passing 

the piston. 

The lubrication of the piston-rings is very 
important, for on that depends the proper work¬ 
ing of the piston in the cylinder. In single- 
cylinder engines, the piston-rings require frequent 
attention, and kerosene should be injected into 
a suitable opening at frequent intervals. Occa¬ 
sionally the piston should be taken out, and the 
rings cleaned with a brush and kerosene. 


183 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


Piston Displacement. The piston displace¬ 
ment of an engine is the volume swept out by 
the piston, and is equal to the area of the cylin¬ 
der multiplied by the stroke of the piston. The 
expression, cylinder volume, is sometimes con¬ 
founded with the term piston displacement. 
This is eironeous, as the cylinder volume is 
equal to the piston displacement, plus the com¬ 
bustion space in the cylinder head. 

Pistons, Length of. For vertical cylinder gas 
or oil engines the length of the piston should not 
on any account be less than one and one-quarter 
its diameter, while a length equal to one and 
one-third or even one and one-half diameters is 
better. For engines with horizontal cylinders the 
length of the piston, in any case, should not be 



FIG. 43 

Longitudinal section and end elevation 

engine. 


r 

of piston ior gas oil 


less than one and one-half diameters, and if pos¬ 
sible one and two-thirds diameters or over. 

A typical piston for gas or oil engine use is 
shown in Figure 43. 










UAS AMD OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 187 

Piston-rings. To ensure proper compression, 
it is absolutely essential that the piston-rings 
should be kept lubricated, consequently if the 
engine has been standing for some time, the 
compression at the start is often poor. Any fail¬ 
ure in the lubrication while running will, of 
course, have the same effect, such, for example* 
as in the case of overheating, or when the supply 
is intermittent. Sometimes the piston-rmgs get 
stuck in their grooves with burnt oil, through 
overheating, and the compression escapes past 
them. Thorough cleaning with kerosene and 
fresh lubricating oil will settle the matter. It 
engines where the rings are not pinned m posi¬ 
tion, the slots may sometimes work round so as 

to coincide. 

A new method of making piston-rmgs has 
recently been introduced, for which several 
important advantages are claimed. The rings 
are turned and finished to the correct size of the 
cylinder in the usual way, and are afterwards 
automatically hammered on their inside surfaces, 
to give them the necessary elasticity. 

The hammering is made heaviest and by this 
method a stress is set up diametrically opposite 
to the ring joint, and the hammering gradually 
reduced in both directions till the joint is reached. 

Piston-rings, Method of Turning. A pat 
iern should be made from which to cast a blank 
cylinder or sleeve with two projecting slotted lugs 


188 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

on one end to bolt same to face plate of lathe. 
This blank should first be turned off outside to 
the required diameter, making it, of course, 
sufficiently larger to allow for the cut in the rings,' 
after cutting from the blank. The blank should 
then be set over eccentric sufficiently to allow the 
thick side of the rings to be twice.the thickness' 
of the thin side after turning. The inside of the 
blank can then be bored out, and the rings cut 
off to the exact thickness required with a good 
sharp cutting off tool. A mandril or arbor 
should be made with two cast iron washers or 
collars to fit on it, one fastened to the mandril 
and the other loose, with lock nut on mandril 
with which to tighten up the loose collar. After 
the rings have been sawed open and a piece cut 
out the required length, they can be placed in a 
collar or ring about 1-32 to 3-64 of an inch 
larger than the cylinder bore, and slipped on to 
the mandril one at a time of course, with the 
loose collar and nut off the same. The loose 
collar and nut can then be put on the mandril, 
the ring clamped tightly between the two collars, 
the mandril put in the lathe and the ring turned 
off, without leaving any fins or having to cut the 
nng oft afterward as is done in many cases. 

Tins is the only way in which a perfectly true 
ring can be made. 

Figure 44 shows two forms of piston-rings, the 
cut or slot in one being of the type known as the 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 18» 

ship-lap and the other as the miter-cut. Both 
forms are in use, the ship-lap form, however, is 

the more expensive to make. 

Piston Velocity. The rate of travel or speed 
of the piston of a gas or oil engine is from 600 to 
750 feet per minute. 

To ascertain the piston velocity in feet per 



FIG. 44 

Side and end elevation of piston-rings, showing ship-lap and 

miter-cut types. 


minute, multiply the stroke of the piston in 
inches by the number of revolutions per minute 

and divide the result by 6. 

Example: Required the piston velocity of an 
engine with 9-inch stroke, at 400 revolutions per 

minute. 

Answer: Nine multiplied by 400 equals 3,600, 












190 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOF 



> 


N 


) 





FIG. 45 



























































































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 191 


this divided by 6 . gives 600 feet per minute as the 
piston velocity. 

Portable Oil Engines. Portable gasoline and 
kerosene engines are used for a variety of pur¬ 
poses. Such engines in connection with circular 
saws, electric light or pumping outfits are found 
very useful. Portable engines are also used for 
agricultural work, such as operating threshing 
machines, feed cutters and other farm machinery. 
Figure 45 shows a portable oil engine mounted 
upon a truck with wooden frame and steel wheels 
and running gear. The engine, cooling appara¬ 
tus and battery are clearly shown in the draw- 

ing. 

As portable engines require to be frequently 
moved from place to place, the design of the 
outfit should be as light as possible and yet sub¬ 
stantial in construction, so that it may be moved 
from one place to another in the shortest possible 
time and with the least expense for transporta- 

tion. 

As portable engines are often in places where 
a supply of water is not available, the water¬ 
cooling apparatus forms an important part of the 

outfit. 

Another fo-im of portable engine is shown m 
figure 46, which is simply mounted on skids 
and may be moved from place to place by two 
! e.'sons. Such an outfit is of much smaller capac- 
. than the one previously described and illus- 


FIG. 46 


192 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


I 



-i. 












































































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 193 

trated, but is found useful for many purposes 
where small power is needed. 

Premature Ignition, Causes of. Too great 
a degree of compression of the charge, an incan¬ 
descent deposit of soot or foreign substance in 
the combustion chamber, from slow or incom¬ 
plete combustion of the previous charge, which 
remains sufficiently heated to fire the new charge 
before the completion of the compression stroke, 
burning gases drawn from the exhaust-pipe into 
the combustion chamber, from the overheating 
of the exhaust valve. Premature ignitions are 
also attributed to the use of low-flash test oils for 
lubricating the cylinder, and too little air in the 
charge will also cause too rapid firing, or in the 
case of the primary form of electric ignition from 

overheated igniter points. 

Primary-spark Coil. This form of induction 
coil is generally used for ignition purposes on gas 
and gasoline engines fitted with a mechanical 
make-and-break form of spark, which is located 
within the combustion chamber of the engine 
itself. 

It consists of two principal parts, a core, made 
of a bundle of soft iron wire, and a coil of wire 
around this core composed of from 3 to 5 layers 
of turns of insulated copper wire, varying in 
diameter from No. 16 to No. 12, 13. & S. Gauge, 
according to the battery conditions under which 
the coil has to operate. The iron core maj vary 


194 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

from three-eighths of an inch in diameter and 
6 inches long, to three-fourths of an inch in 
diameter, and 12 to 15 inches long, depending 
upon the intensity and capacity of the spark 
required. 

Primary-spark Plug. The construction of 
one of .the usual forms of make-and-break pri¬ 
mary-spark plugs is clearly shown in Figure 47. 
The upper and fixed electrode is insulated by 



FIG. 47 

Primary-spark plug, showing fixed and movable electrodes and 

platinum contact-points. 


means of mica or lava washers and is secured in 
place by means of a lock nut and washer. The 
movable electrode has a coil spring around its 
outer end, one end of the spring secured to the 
spindle of the electrode and the other to the hub 
of a small trigger on the extreme end of the 
spindle. Phis construction allows for any wear 
on the contact-points and at all times ensures a 
good contact between them. 








































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 195 

Prony Brake. This simple device gives the 
actual energy in foot-pounds per minute delivered 
by the engine at its driving shaft. 

The apparatus for making a brake test is fully 
illustrated in Figure 48. Two brake-blocks A 
partially surround the pulley P and are attached 
to the clamping pieces B and C, which hold the 
brake-blocks upon the pulley by means of the 
bolts D, springs E and thumb-nuts F. The 
lever G is double-ended for the dual purpose of 
balancing itself and also supplying a place of 
attachment for the weight W to balance the 

weight of the spring scale S. 

In using this form of Prony brake, the engine 
is started in the direction indicated by the arrow 
on the drawing, the brake-blocks A are then 
tightened by means of the springs E and thumb- 
nuts F. Then the reading of the spring scale S 
and the speed of the pulley P are taken. 

The engine should be tested at varying speeds 
and the pull on the spring scale S noted for each. 

The actual horsepower can then be calculated 
for each test and what is known as the critical 
speed of the engine determined, that is the speed 
at which the engine develops the greatest brake 
horsepower. 

The following formula gives the actual horse¬ 
power obtained from the results of a Prony brake 
test: Let L be the length of- the scale lever in 
inches, and S the pull indicated by the spring 


196 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 
















































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 197 


scale in pounds. If N be the number of revolu¬ 
tions per minute of the pulley R and B.H.P the 
actual or brake horsepower of the engine, then 


B.H.P = 


L X S X N 
63,025 


Remington Oil Engine. The Remington 
oil engine is of the vertical type, operating on 
the two-stroke cycle, the fuel being introduced 
into the combustion chamber as a liquid and 
gasified within this chamber. The engine is 
valveless, the gases being moved into and out of 
the cylinder through ports uncovered by the 
movement of the piston, w T hich itself performs 
also the function of a pump. The action is as 
follows: 

On the up-stroke of the piston a partial 
vacuum is created in the • enclosed crankcase, 
causing; air to rush in when the bottom of the 
piston uncovers the inlet port seen directly un¬ 
der the exhaust port (23), Figure 48a. On the 
next down-stroke this air is compressed in the 
crankcase to about four or five pounds pressure 
per square inch. Meanwhile the mixture of oil, 
vapor and air already in the cylinder is burning 
and expanding. When the piston approaches 
the end of its down-stroke, it uncovers the ex¬ 
haust port (23), permitting the burnt charge 
to escape, until its pressure reaches that of the 
atmosphere. Directly afterward the transfer 
port on the opposite side of the cylinder is un- 




198 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 



FIG. 48a 


Names 


13 

Oil spraying nozzle. 

20 

14 

Control lever. 

21 

15 

Hand hole cover. 

22 

16 

Crankpin brasses. 

23 

17 

Flywheel. 

24 

18 

Governor weight. 

25 

19 

Cam. 



of Parts. 

Stud carrying governor weight. 
Crankcase end plate. 

Wrist pin bushing. 

Exhaust pipe flange. 

Speed control segment. 

Bracket carrying control lever. 


















GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 199 


covered by the piston, thereby allowing a por¬ 
tion of the air compressed in the crankcase to 
rush into the cylinder, where it is deflected up¬ 
wards by the shape of the top of the piston and 
caused to fill the cylinder, thereby expelling the 
remainder of the burnt charge. The piston now 
starts upward, compressing the fresh charge of 
air into the hot cylinder head. Near the end 
of the stroke a small oil pump, mounted on the 
crankcase and controlled by the governor, in¬ 
jects the proper amount of oil through the noz¬ 
zle (13), Figure 48b, into the compressed and 
heated air. 

This oil is atomized in a vertical direction 
through a hole near the end of the nozzle. It 
is therefore vaporized and gasified before there 
is a possibility of its reaching the cylinder walls. 

The spray of oil is ignited by the nickel steel 
plug (12), which is kept red hot by the ex¬ 
plosions, because the iron walls surrounding it 
are protected from radiation by the hood (11). 
By the burning of the oil spray in the air the 
pressure is gradually increased and the piston 
forced downward, this being the power or im¬ 
pulse stroke. Near the end of the down-stroke 
the exhaust port is again uncovered and the burnt 
gases discharged. 

The operations above described take place in 
the cylinder and crankcase with every revolution. 
Each up-stroke of the piston draws fresh air 
into the crankcase and compresses the air trans¬ 
ferred to the cylinder. Each down-stroke is a 


200 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 





FIG. 48b 


Names of Parts. 


1 Cylinder head. 7 

2 Cylinder. 8 

3 Tiston. 9 

4 Wrist pin. 10 

5 Connecting rod. 11 

6 Counter balance weights. 12 


Main bearing cap. 
Crankshaft and crankpin. 
Crank oil hole. 

Crankcase. 

Hood on cylinder head. 
Igniter plug of nickel steel. 









GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 201 


power stroke and at the same time compresses 
the air in the crankcase preparatory to trans¬ 
ferring it to the cylinder by its own pressure at 
the end of the stroke. 

The same volume of air enters the cylinder 
under all conditions, and the power is regulated 
by modifying the stroke of the oil pump, which 
may be done by hand or automatically by the 
governor in the flywheel. 

Governor and Control. The governor is of 
the centrifugal type. It has an L-shaped weight 

(18) , Figure 48b, pivoted to the piece (20) at¬ 
tached to the flywheel. As the engine speed 
increases the weight (18) tends to swing out¬ 
ward toward the flywheel rim, and thereby moves 
the arm attached to it so as to shift the cam 

(19) along the crankshaft toward the left in the 
figure. 

This cam turns with the shaft, and operates 
the kerosene oil pump. According to the posi¬ 
tion of the cam on the shaft, it will impart to the 
pump plunger a long or a short stroke, thereby 
injecting more or less oil into the cylinder. The 
long lever pivoted on the bracket (25) moves 
with the cam (19) and is used for controlling the 
engine’s speed by hand. To stop the engine 
the handle (14) of the lever is pulled towards 
the flywheel, thereby interrupting the pump 
action altogether. 

The handle of the control lever can be fitted 
with an adjustable speed regulator when re¬ 
quired. This device is for use on marine engines 


202 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


to enable the operator to slow down the engine. 
The speed regulator does not interfere with the 
action of the governor, but acts in conjunction 
with it. Whatever the speed of the engine may 
be, it is under the control of the governor. The 
engine can be controlled from the pilot house 
if such an arrangement is desirable. 

All Remington oil engines are built to op¬ 
erate on all grades of ordinary kerosene oil, 
while several sizes are built especially to operate 
on lower grade, semi-refined fuels, w T hich have a 
variety of names and composition, such as fuel 
oil, Diesel oil, distillate, solar oil, gas oil, etc. 

Starting. To start the engine, the hollow 
cast-iron projection rising from the cylinder 
head is heated by the kerosene torch furnished 
with the engine. When it is hot, a single charge 
of oil is injected into the cylinder by working 
the hand lever connected with the pump. The 
flywheel is now turned smartly backward, there¬ 
by compressing the charge, which ignites before 
the piston reaches the highest point, and starts 
the engine in the forward directon. 

After the engine has b^en started the starting 
torch may be extinguished. Ignition will take 
place continuously and the engine will not miss 
fire under varying loads. 

Cylinder. The cylinder is provided with a 
water jacket extending practically its full length. 
This insures thorough cooling of the piston and 
increases the efficiency of the lubrication. 

This water jacket is provided with two long 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 203 


hand hole plates on opposite sides of the cylin¬ 
der, which may be conveniently removed for in¬ 
specting and removing sediment from the water 
jacket space. 

Ignition. Rising from the center of the 
head is a hollow cast-iron projection, which con¬ 
tains the nickel steel igniter plug by which the 
oil gas is ignited. This plug is practically inde¬ 
structible by heat, and as it is permanently 
located at an exact point found correct by trial, 
it fires the charge at the right moment under all 
conditions. 

Fuel Pump . The fuel pump is made of bronze. 
The valves are made of bronze and are specially 
designed w T ith very large areas and are very care¬ 
fully fitted and ground. The plunger is made of 
tool steel and is hardened and ground. A bronze 
cup strainer is attached to the lower end of the 
pump to prevent sediment or foreign matter from 
reaching the pump valves. 

Repairing a Gas or Oil Engine. The piston 

should be thoroughly washed w r ith kerosene. 
When putting the piston back in the cylinder, 
each ring should be put separately in exact posi¬ 
tion in its groove as regards the dow r el-pin (if 
any) in the ring groove before the ring enters 
the cylinder. The piston, the rings, and the 
inside of the cylinder should all be carefully 
cleaned and well lubricated with proper oil before 
the piston is again put in place. Where the rings 
require cleaning, this should be done by washing 
with kerosene. If the piston-rings require to be 


204 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


taken off the piston, they should be sprung open 
by having pieces of sheet metal about one- 
sixteenth of an inch thick and about one-half 
inch wide inserted between the ring and the 
body of piston. 

The inlet and exhaust-valves should be fre¬ 
quently taken out, cleaned and examined, and, if 
necessary, reground in. Finely-powdered emery 
or tripoli are very satisfactory to grind the valves 
in with. 

Care should be taken, in replacing the valves, 
that they are clean and free from rust or carbon, 
and are allowed to drop on their seats freely and 
do not stick in their guides. 

The crank-shaft bearings will occasionally 
require taking up as they show signs of wear and 
commence to knock or pound. For this adjust¬ 
ment, liners are placed between the cap and the 
lower half of the bearings. These liners can be 
occasionally reduced in thickness, so that the cap 
is allowed to come down closer to the shaft. 

Secondary Coil. Any form of electrical igni¬ 
tion requires some outside source of electric 
energy such as a generator or battery to produce 
a spark in the combustion chamber of the motor. 
A primary or secondary induction coil is neces¬ 
sary in connection with the source of electric 
energy to give a spark of sufficient intensity to 
properly ignite the compressed charge in the 
combustion chamber of the engine. This method 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 205 


of ignition provides a means of regulating the 
motor speed by advancing and retarding the point 
of ignition, or time of igniting the explosive charge. 

The coil first mentioned is known as a primary- 
spark coil, from the fact that the spark or arc is 
produced by the direct effect of the battery or 
generator current flowing in the coil. This form 
of spark will not arc or jump across a space 



FIG. 49 

Secondary-spark circuit, showing coil spark plug, battery and 

commutator. 


between two points, but simply occurs between 
the contact-points on the breaking of the contact. 

The second form of induction coil is generally 
known as a secondary-spark coil, because the arc 
or spark is produced in the secondary winding of 
the coil, and will jump or arc across a space 
between two fixed points, without the points first 
coming in contact. 

Figure 49 shows the wiring circuit for a gas or 
















































206 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


oil engine equipped with the secondary or jump- 
spark form of electrical ignition. The battery, 
commutator, spark coil and spark plug are 
plainly indicated, also the wiring connections 
from the spark coil to the engine and between 
the coil, battery and commutator. 

Smoke from Cylinder, Cause of. If black 
smoke comes from the cylinder, it may arise 
from leaky piston, overheating, want of or excess¬ 
ive lubrication, too rich mixture, faulty combus¬ 
tion, faulty ignition. 

Solders and Spelters. Solders and spelters 
for use with different metals, and their propor¬ 
tional parts by weights are 


Solder for: 

Electrician’s use.1—Tin, 1—Lead. 

Gold.24—Gold, 2—Silver, 1—Copper. 

Platinum.1—Copper, 3 Silver. 

Plumber’s—Hard . . . 1—Lead, 2—Tin. 

Soft.3—Lead, 1—Tin. 

Silver—Hard.1—Copper, 4—Silver. 

Soft.1—Brass, 2—Silver. 

Tin—Hard.2—Tin, 1—Lead. 

Soft.1—Tin, 1—Lead. 

Spelter for: 

Fine brass work.8—Copper, 8—Zinc, 1—Silver. 

Common brass.1—Copper, 1—Zinc. 

Cast iron.4—Copper, 3—Zinc. 

Steel.3—Copper, 1—Zinc. 

Wrought iron.2—Copper, 1—Zinc. 


Starting a Gas Engine. If an incandescent 
tube is used for the ignition, the Bunsen burner 
should first be lighted. While the tube is being 
heated, oil up all the working parts of the 
engine. 















GAS AND OIL ENGINF HAND-BOOK 207 

If electric ignition is used, close the battery 
switch. 

Next, open the gas valve so as to admit a 
charge of gas into the inlet-valve chamber, <dong 
with the air, then give the flywheels four or five 
quick turns until the engine starts. 

Open the lubricator on the cylinder and sec 
that it is adjusted so as to allow about 10 drops 
of oil to flow per minute. 

The water in the cooling tank should always 
be at least 6 inches above the overflow pipe from 
the top of the cylinder jacket. 

If the engine does not ignite its first or second 
charge there is a reason for it, and the cause of 
the trouble should be located. 

Starting a Gasoline Engine. The instruc¬ 
tions given for starting a gas engine apply also to 
a gasoline engine, with the exception that the 
supply of gasoline from the carburetei oi mixing 
valve should be regulated according to the instruc¬ 
tions given by the manufacturer of the engine. 

The fuel supply of a gasoline engine is usually 
regulated by means of a needle-valve, which 
should be carefully cleaned at regular intervals. 
In engines using a pump feed, the supply or 
gasoline is usually regulated by adjusting the 
stroke of the pump, or by regulating the opening 
in a by-pass, so that a portion of the fuel is 
pumped through the by-pass and returns t<? the 
supply tank. 


208 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


Starting a Gasoline or Kerosene Engine for 
the First Time. Don’t attempt to start an 
engine the first time until the following points 
are found to be right: 

That there is good compression. 

That the batteries are set up properly and 
wired correctly. 

That a good bright spark is obtained by 
touching the ends of the two wires at the engine 
together. 

That there is a good supply of gasoline or oil 
in the supply tank. 

That the gasoline or oil pump works freely 
ana that the gasoline or oil reaches the vaporizer. 

1 nat the inlet and exhaust-valves are not 
stuck, and that they work freely and seat 
quickly. 

Starting a Gas or Oil Engine, General Direc¬ 
tions for. I he successful starting or running of 
an engine depends entirely on the mixture of gas 
and air, and proper ignition. 

As all of these are under full control of the 
operator at all times, it lies entirely with him as 
to whetner the engine starts and runs properly or 
not. 

The engine cannot start itself, it must be 
started. 

If the abo\e conditions and the) following 
instructions are properly carried out, the engine 
will start without fail. 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BCKlK 209 

Before starting up the engine, go over all the 
connections carefully and see that everything is 
in place according to the instructions. 

See that the gasoline tank is full. 

Pump up the gasoline by working the pump 
lever until the feed chamber is full. 

Close the cock in the bottom of the water tank 
and fill the tank to near the top pipe, but not full 
enough to run into the pipe if the weathei is 

freezing. 

Never let the water enter the cylinder or valve 
chamber jackets in cold weather until the engine 
has run long enough to become warm. 

Open the burner-valve, first passing a nail or 
match down through a hole in the burner tube, 
and hold it so as to turn the stream of gasoline 
down and fill the burner pan, then close the valve 
and light the gasoline. 

When the gasoline in the pan is burned out, 
open the valve and light the vapor, which should 
burn with a strong, steady blue flame. 

The globe-valve, next to the burner, is to help 
regulate the flame, and should be closed nearh 

tight. 

While the burner is heating the tube, which 
should take from two to three minutes, if it is 
properly regulated, see that the grease cups are 

full. 

Oil up all parts of the engine, 
cator and start it to feed. 


Fill the lubri- 


al ° GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

Turn the engine round by hand several times 
to see that everything is in its proper place, and 
nothing binding. 

Examine the flywheel keys and see that they 
are driven tight. 

When the tube is hot the engine is ready to 
start. 

If electric ignition is used, close the batterv 

%/ 

switch. Almost close the air-valve before start¬ 
ing the engine. 

The object of closing the air-valve is to obtain 
a rich charge and make it surer to explode. 

The amount of fuel can be regulated at will. 

It can be made so weak that it will not 
explode or so strong it cannot be ignited. 

When black smoke issues from the exhaust 
pipe, the mixture is too strong. 

Starting a Kerosene Engine. The methods 
usually employed to ignite the explosive charge 
in the combustion chamber of an oil engine are; 
By means of an electric spark, an incandescent 
tube, or a vaporizing chamber with projecting 
ribs which are kept incandescent by the heat of 
the previous charge. 

The proper heating of the vaporizing chamber 
is the first and most important thing to be 
attended to when starting an oil engine and care 
should be taken that the vaporizer is sufficiently 
hot before attempting to start the engine. 

The Bunsen burner or lamp should be kept 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 211 

burning for five or ten minutes or even longer, 
according to the size of the engine. When the 
vaporizer is sufficiently heated, turn on the fuel 
oil supply and give the flywheels four or five 
quick turns, if all other conditions are right the 
engine should at once start. See that the cylin¬ 
der lubricator and the oil cups on the crank shaft 
bearings are filled before starting the engine, also 
oil the wrist-pin end of the connecting-rod and 
the cam shaft bearings. After the engine is 
started, open the valve in the air-inlet pipe until 
the engine attains its normal speed. 

When electric ignition is usea, he battery 
switch should always be closed before a attempt 

is made to start the engine. 

With the hot tube form of ignition, the tube 
should always be incandescent before starting the 

engine. 

Always be sure that the supply of water to the 

cylinder jacket is ample. 

With oil engines which operate on the vapor¬ 
izer principle, it is found absolutely necessaiy to 
heat the fuel before it enters the cylinder. In 
some oil engines it is not necessary to heat the 
fuel before it enters the cylinder, as it is injected 
against a highly heated surface. 

Starting Oil Engines, New Method of. A 

method of starting an oil engine has of recent years 
been used in which alcohol, gasoline, or naphtha is 
burnt for a few minutes instead of kerosene. 


212 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

This method is advantageous in that the engine 
when cold can be started without the use of an 
external heater. The lighter fuel is supplied to 
the vaporizer or cylinder until the vaporizing 
attachment has become heated by the internal 
combustion to the temperature necessary for 
vaporizing the heavier fuel, then the fuel supply 
is changed, the supply of lighter fuel being 
stopped. Where a vaporizer is used in which 
the charge is not explosive until after compres¬ 
sion, an independent electric igniter is used to 
ignite the charge, and is only in operation until 
the vaporizer becomes properly heated. 

Starting Troubles. If, after turning the 
flywheels of the engine four or five times, it 
refuses to start, the trouble may be due to any 
one of the following causes: Loss of com¬ 
pression, faulty ignition, improper mixture, 
water in the cylinder, or oil on the igniter con¬ 
tact-points. 

Sometimes an engine will start readily, but 
dense smoke having a strong odor will issue from 
the exhaust-pipe. This may be an indication 
that the mixture is too rich, although it is fre¬ 
quently due to an excess of lubricating oil in the 
cylinder. To correct the mixture, more air 
should be admitted to the cylinder. 

Failure of an engine to start is more often 
occasioned by too weak than by too rich a mix¬ 
ture. 1 he first thing to do, if regulating the air 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 213 


does not correct it, is to ascertain if the fuel 
supply pipe is free from obstructions. This pipe 
is generally not very large, and is more 01 less 
crooked. A partial stoppage of the pipe will 
therefore result in a too weak mixture. 

Stopping a Gas or Oil Engine. The first 
things to do when stopping an engine are: 

Shut off the gas or oil supply. 

Close all oil cups or lubricators. 

Switch off the battery or turn out the ignition 


tube burner. 

Wipe off the engine and see that it is in good 
shape for the next run. 

While cleaning the engine examine all nuts 
and bolts, all points needing adjustment. Exam¬ 
ine the condition of the crank shaft and other 


bearings. If they are hot or show signs of heat¬ 
ing, locate the cause if possible and remove it 

before again starting the engine. 

Do not fail to throw the battery switch off 
when the engine is not running, as there is 
always a possibility of short circuiting the battery 
and possibly ruining it in a few hours. 

It will pay to always keep the engine neat and 
clean. Examine the engine occasionally and see 

that everything is working properly. 

If the engine has not to be re-started for some 
days, it is a good plan to turn off the oil supply 
to the cylinder for a short period before stopping, 
as what oil remains will be burnt out, and there 


214 *GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

is less liability to the gumming of the piston and 
cylinder or valves. 

Stopping Troubles. Some of the principal 
causes of stopping of gas or oil engines are as 
follows: 

Bad design or construction of the engine, 
improper mixture of fuel ana air, defective water 
circulation or insufficient cooling of the cylinder, 
leakage of the piston, leakage of the valves or 
valve joints, improper or insufficient lubrication, 
governor gear defective, back pressure from foul¬ 
ing of the exhaust with residue, ignition mech¬ 
anism worn or defective, imperfect compression 
or combustion, leak in the inlet-pipe, premature 
ignition, misfiring, backfiring, or the ignition 
wrongly timed. 

Tachometer. A tachometer is an instrument 
for indicating the number of revolutions made by 
a machine in a unit of time—usually one minute. 

Tanks, Capacity of Cylindrical. To ascertain 
the capacity in gallons of a cylindrical tank of 
gi\en length, multiply the area of the cross-sec¬ 
tion of the tank in square inches by rhe length of 
the tank in inches, and divide the product by 

231, the result will be the capacity of the tank 
in gallons. 

Tanks, Installation of Gasoline. The proper 
method of installing the supply tank for a gaso^ 
line engine is shown in Figure 50. 

The vault for the reception of the supply tank 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 215 


should be walled with brick of good quality and 
well cemented so as to exclude water, the cover 
of the vault should also be water-tight. Shut-off 



FIG. 50 


Gasoline tank installation, showing location of tank, shut-off 
cocks and method of piping. 

valves or cocks should be placed in both the 
supply and overflow pipes as shown. The sup¬ 
ply tank should be made of heavy galvanized iron 
or steel and well riveted. 

A screen of fine wire gauze should always be 
fitted in the mouth of the filling opening of the 
supply tank, to prevent the entrance of dirt or 
other foreign substances which may be in the 
gasoline. 

A small vent opening should be made in the 
cap or cover of the filling opening to allow of the 
































































216 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


ingress of air, otherwise the gasoline pump will 
not work properly. 

Throttle, Use of. For the purpose of regu¬ 
lating or controlling the speed of gas or oil 
engines, throttling devices are sometimes used to 
choke or partially cut off the supply of explosive 
mixture, being drawn in the cylinder of the 
engine. 

A butterfly-valve or form of throttle commonly 

used for this 
purpose is 
shown in Fig¬ 
ure 51. It 
has a valve- 
chamber A, 
valve B and 
lever C. The 
valve is loca¬ 
ted at any suit¬ 
able point in 
the inlet-pipe 
of the engine, 
between the mixing-valve or vaporizer and the 
inlet-valve chamber. 



FIG. 51 

Throttle for regulating the volume of explo¬ 
sive charge to the engine cylinder. 


Two-cycle Engine, Construction of. Fig¬ 
ure 52 shows a vertical cross-section of a two- 
cycle type of marine engine. C is the crank 
chamber. It has two feet, or lugs, D as shown 
in the drawing, for the purpose of attaching it to 
its position in a boat or elsewhere. There is an 












GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 217 


opening at A for the reception of the mixing- 
valve. The flywheel F, crank shaft G, connecting- 
rod H, piston P, inlet-port B, baffle-plate J and 
exhaust-opening E, are plainly shown in the 
drawing. 

To the top of the piston P is attached a cone- 
pointed projection K. This is on the right-hand 
side and is placed 
there to break 
the electrical cir¬ 
cuit between the 
contact-points of 
the igniter. This 
is effected by the 
cone - point K 
striking the right- 
hand end of the 
lever L, which 
causes the lever 
to rise at that end 
and fall at the 
o.t her, thus 
breaking the con¬ 
tact between it 
and the insulated 
igniter terminal 
M. This break¬ 
age of the circuit causes a spark to occur between 
the leit-hand end of the lever L and the point with 
which it was, a moment before, in contact. This 



FIG. 52 

Vertical cross-section, showing the con¬ 
struction of a two-cycle gas or 
gasoline engine. 



























218 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


action takes place once in each revolution of the 
motor and just before the piston reaches the end 
of its upward stroke. 

dhe ignition may be retarded or advanced by 
raising or lowering the fulcrum of the lever L, 
by means of the eccentric shown. 

The upper part of the cylinder is incased by a 
water jacket W^ as is the cylinder head or 
cover N. 


Two-cycle Engine, Principle of. Figure 53 
gives two diagrammatic views of the operation of 



Two-cycle motor 


FIG. 53 

diagrams, showing the various operations 
during the cycles. 


a two-cycle gas or oil engine. It shows an inlet- 
valve A, port or passage B, crank case C, 
exhaust opening E and piston P. When the 
piston has reached the position shown /n Dia¬ 
gram No. 1, it has forced a charge of explosive 

















GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 219 

mixture from the crank case through the port or 
passage into the cylinder. The piston then 
moves to the position shown in Diagram No. 2, 
and while doing so, closes the port or passage 
and the exhaust opening, the compressed charge 
is then ignited, an explosion occurs and the 
piston is forced out to the position shown in Dia¬ 
gram No. 1. 

The admission of the new charge of explosive 
mixture to the crank case is controlled by the 
action of the piston. As the latter travels away 
from the crank case, it has a tendency to create 
a partial vacuum in the latter. This operation 
draws the inlet-valve inward and admits the new 
charge. 

The baffle-plate shown on the head of the 
piston directs the new charge from the crank case 
towards the combustion chamber end of the 
cylinder, providing as nearly as possible a pure 
charge of mixture and assisting in the expulsion 
of the burned gases left in the cylinder from the 

last explosion. 

As this type of engine draws in a charge of ex¬ 
plosive mixture, compresses it, ignites it and dis¬ 
charges the products of combustion while the 
piston makes one complete travel backward and 
forward, it consequently has a working stroke or 
power impulse every revolution of the crank-shaft. 

Two-cycle Marine Engine. A single cylinder 
two-cycle type of marine engine mounted on a 


220 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


base with reversing gear, propeller and shaft is 
shown in Figure 54. Such outfits are made in 
single units of from lj to 7j horsepower. 

Valves. A valve in a very bad or pitted con¬ 
dition causes bad compression and the exhaust- 
valve should be ground occasionally. After 



J 


Two-cycle^mann^ngni^^with^re\'eraing^mechaidsm, propeller 


grinding a valve be sure that there is ample 
clearance between the valve and the lifter It. 
Should have not less than one-thirty-second of an 
inch, otherwise when the valve becomes hot it 
will not seat properly, poor compression beinsr 
the result. In grinding a valve there is no occa¬ 
sion to use force, and the grinding should be 
done lightly, the valve being lifted from time to 
tune so that any foreign substance in the emery 











































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 221 

will not cut a ridge in the seat or the valve itself. 
After grinding a valve always wash out the valve 
seat with a little kerosene and be careful that 
none of the emery is allowed to get into the 
engine cylinder. 

Sometimes an engine may suddenly stop from 
the failure of a valve to seat properly. This may 
be due to the warping of the valve through the 
engine having run dry and become hot, or it may 
be from the failure of the valve spring or the 
sticking of the valve-stem in its guides. The 
valve should be removed, and the stem cleaned 
and scraped, or straightened if it requires it, 
until it moves freely in the guide, and the spring 
is given its full tension. If the valve still leaks 
so that the engine will not start or develop suffi¬ 
cient power, the valve will have to be ground 

into its seat. 

Valves which need re-seating should first be 
ground in place with fine emery and oil, then 

finished with tripoli and water. 

Valves and Valve-chambers. The dimen¬ 
sions of the inlet and exhaust-valve openings are 
governed by the diameter of the cylinder and tfc- 
piston velocity in feet per minute. The form ot 
valve-chamber in general use is made separate 
and bolted to the cylinder. The valve-chamber 
can then be entirely renewed if necessary and at 
small expense. Other forms of valve-chambers 
have the valves placed horizontally in the cyl- 


222 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

inder head. In any case the valves should be 
brought as close as possible to the inside of the 
cylinder, the clearance space in the ports being 
reduced to a minimum. 

In engines of large size the inlet and exhaust- 
valve chamber is surrounded by a water jacket, 
v hich maintains its proper temperature and pre- 
\ents the valve seats being warped from over¬ 
heating, which might otherwise occur. 

When the inlet-valve is atmospherically or suc¬ 
tion operated, it is opened by the partial vacuum 
in the cylinder during the suction period, and 
closed by a spring. The inlet and exhaust-valve 
openings are usually made of such a diameter that 
the velocity of the gas as it enters the cylinder is 
about 100 feet per second, the velocity of the 
exhaust gases through the exhaust opening being 
about 80 feet per second. 

Valves, Diameter and Lift of. To ascertain 
the proper diameter of inlet and exhaust-valve 
openings and the lift of the valve to give an 
opening equal to the area of the valve opening, 
the following formulas will be found useful. 

Let B be the bore of the motor cylinder in 
inches, and S the stroke of the piston also in 
inches. As R is the number of revolutions per 

minute and D the required diameter of the valve 
opening, then 

^ BXSXR 


15,000 



GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 223 


Example: Required the diameter of the admis¬ 
sion-valve opening for a motor of 6-inch bore 
and 9-inch stroke at 600 revolutions per minute. 

Answer: As 6 multiplied by 9 and by 600 
equals 32,400, then 32,400 divided by 15,000 
gives 2.16 inches as the diameter of the valve 
opening. 

The lift of the 45-degree bevel-seat form of 
valve requires to be about three-eighths of the 
diameter of the valve opening: that is, if L is the 
required lift of the valve and D the diameter of 
the valve opening, then 



The bevel-seat form of valve is to be preferred 
to the flat-seat or mushroom type of valve, for 
two reasons: first, that it is more readily kept in 
shape by re-grinding, and second, it gives a freer 
and more direct passage for the gases. 

For an atmospherically operated admission- 
valve which will insure practically a full charge 
in the motor cylinder the formula should be 

BxSxR 

D— 12,750 

Both inlet and exhaust-valves should be of 
ample area and short lift, and be arranged so 
that they may be readily inspected and adjusted, 
and with as few joints as possible. 




224 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

Valve Lifters. Figure 55 illustrates a form of 
valve operating mechanism in which the valve 

is actuated by 
means of a roller 
upon the end of 
a rocker arm, to 
the upper side of 
which is secured 
a hardened steel 
plate, which in! 
most cases acts 
directly upon the 
end of the valve- 
stem. 

Another form 
of valve lifter is 
shown in Fig¬ 
ure 56, in which 
the rocker arm is 
omitted, the cam 
operating the valve through the medium of a 
plunger rod and roller. 

Valve Operating Mechanism. A form of 

valve operating mechanism is shown in Fig¬ 
ure 57, in which both the inlet and exhaust- 
valves are operated independently by means 
of a rocker-shaft and lifting arms, through 
the medium of two cam-rods and levers shown 
at the right of the drawing. The lifter-arm and 
cam-rod lever of the inlet-valve 



FIG. 55 

Valve lifter and roller lever with hard¬ 
ened steel lifter plate. 


• are in one 








GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 225 

piece, and work free on the end of the rocker 
shaft. 

Valve Stems, Fit of. The inlet and exhaust- 
valve stems should not be a very close fit in their 



FIG. 56 

Valve lifter with cam acting directly on the lifter. 


guides. If the fit in these guides is made too close, 
when the valve-chamber becomes heated the con¬ 
sequent expansion may cause the valve-stem to 
stick in the guides, and leakage of the valve will 
result. 

The valve seats are in some engines left almost 
sharp, being not more than one-sixteenth of an 

inch wide before grinding. 

Valves, Timing of. The movement of the 

valves should always be timed to give the proper 
results. This is an important point to remem¬ 
ber. The cam shaft on a four-cycle engine is 















226 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 



usually driven by the two to one gear on the 
crank shaft, and if for any reason the gears are 

taken apart and 
put together, 
even if only 
one tooth out of 
place, it will 
throw the valve 
mechanism out 
of time. 

To ascertain 
if the valves of 
an engine are 
properly timed, 
turn the fly- 
wheel over 
slowly and no¬ 
tice at what 

points the valves open and close, and when* the 
ignition, if electric, takes place. 

The exhaust-valve should open when about five- 
sixths of the stroke is completed and close at the 
end of the next stroke. The next inward stroke 
is the compression stroke, when all valves should 
be closed. At the beginning of the next outward 
stroke the inlet-valve should be slightly open. 

If the engine is taken to pieces, it is important 
that a tooth of the gear wheel on the crank shaft 
and a corresponding space of the gear on the 
cam shaft should be marked, so that when put 


fig. 57 

Valve operating mechanism, showing inlet 
and exhaust-valves and lifter rods. 

































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 227 

together again the same teeth may mesh together, 
and so avoid altering the throw of the cams and 
consequent timing of the valves. 

Viscosity of Oils. The figures given for the 
viscosity of an oil denote, in seconds, the time 
taken by 1,000 grains of oil to flow through a 
small orifice in the testing apparatus at various 
temperatures. 

The standard usually adopted for viscosity is 
genuine sperm oil, which is taken as 100 at 
70 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Water Cooling System. The pipes should 
be of ample capacity, and the pipe leading from 
the top of the cylinder jacket to the upper part 
of the water tank should be arranged so as to be 
as short as possible, and any necessary bends 
should be as large as possible. 

The water supply should enter near the exhaust 
opening and leave it at the highest point of the 
cylinder jacket. 

The water required in the tank should be from 
20 to 25 gallons per horsepower, and the quantity 
required to circulate in the water jacket to keep 
the cylinder cool is about 4*2 gallons per horse- 
power. 

The temperature of the water from the cylinder 
jacket should never be over 140 to 160 degrees 
Fahrenheit, and if the load is constant this may 
be reduced, but be never less than 100 degrees 
Fahrenheit. 


228 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


If the temperature of the cylinder is allowed 
to exceed 400 degrees Fahrenheit lubrication will 
be difficult, and if the cylinder jacket is found to 
be much hotter than the water in the tank, the 
water circulation is poor from scale or incrusta¬ 
tion, and should be at once attended to. 

Never run the engine without water in the 
cylinder jacket, and always keep the level of the 



water in the tank at least six inches above the 
upper pipe. 

Figure 58 shows the proper manner of connect¬ 
ing the water tank to the cylinder jacket. The 
tank should be connected to the engine with 



























GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 229> 


short lengths of rubber hose in the piping to 
prevent any joints or connections working loose 
from the engine vibration. 

The object of the water is not to keep the 
cylinder cold, but simply cool enough to prevent 
the lubricating oil from burning. The hotter the 
cylinder with effective lubrication the more power 
the engine will develop. 

It should be remembered that a hot engine is 
the more economical in fuel. 

Water-jackets. The thickness of the water- 
jacket space around the cylinder of a gas or oil 
engine should not be less than one-eighth of the 
bore of the cylinder, while the water space sur¬ 
rounding the head of the combustion chamber of 
the cylinder should not be less than one-sixth of 
the cylinder bore. 

Bosses for pipe connections to the water-jacket 
outlet should always be placed at the highest 
point of the jacket, so as to prevent an air space 
being formed above the outlet of the jacket- 
Steam will be formed in this space, and with 
a gravity or thermal-syphon system is liable 
to blow or force the water out of the cylinder 

jacket. 

To obtain the greatest degree of fuel economy 
and engine efficiency the jacket water should be 
always of a temperature slightly under the boiling 
point of water. A cool water-jacket is a sign of 
an inefficient engine. 


230 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


Water-jacket Circulation. Figure 59 shows 
the proper manner of making the water-jacket 



Water-circulation through the cylinder and valve chamber of a 

gas or oil engine. 

pipe connections when the cooling water is taken 
from a hydrant. 

The water from the inlet-pipe enters the 
bottom of the cylinder near the combustion 

chamber, passing around the valve chamber and 

* • 

out through the upper pipe into the funnel at the 
top of the waste pipe. A connection should be 
made into the waste pipe from the bottom of the 
































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 231 


water-jacket as shown, so as to enable the jacket 
water to be drawn off in cold weather. 

Water-jacket, Draining the. During cold 
weather always close the tank valves and open 
the drain cock so as to drain all the water from 
the water-jacket and the pipes leading from the 
water-jacket to the tank, as a freeze-up in the 
water-jacket would be sure to injure the cylinder 
jacket and possibly ruin it. It is a good rule 
during the cold weather to shut off the water 
from the cooling tank and drain the cylinder 
jacket from three to five minutes before shutting 
the engine down, thereby making sure that all 
traces of water are out of the cylinder jacket and 
pipes. Also in starting the engine in cold 
weather it is best not to turn on the water until 
the engine has been running from three to five 
minutes. 

Water-jacket, Testing of. The water-jackets 
of cylinders or valve-chambers should be all 
tested by air pressure to at least 120 pounds 
pressure per square inch before the piston is put 
into the cylinder. 


ADDENDUM 


Gas Engine Troubles. For those who hav% 
not the time to study gas engine principles 
this section is included. 

Many of the troubles are due to the opera¬ 
tor’s ignorance of the principles of operation, 
or to negligence in taking care of the engine. 

One of the most common mistakes is trying to 
make the engine run without fuel. The opera¬ 
tor will turn the starting crank until out of breath 
when he will suddenly discover that the 
gasoline tank is empty! 

A gas engine will not run without gas, but it 
is hard to get this simple fact fixed permanently 
in the mind of the operator. 

Another trouble, similar to the empty gaso¬ 
line tank, is trying to make the engine run with¬ 
out a spark to ignite the compressed charge. 
Sometimes a connection in the wiring will break 
which wfill deceive the operator. 

A short circuit, in an unexpected place, will lead 
to the same trouble. 

See that the engine gets a proper charge, then 
see that the spark is heavy enough to fire it. 

Do not turn the starting crank or fly wheel 
until patience and endurance are entirely ex¬ 
pended. 


232 



GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 233 

If the engine does not start promptly in four 
or five turns, the right conditions are not present 
and the operator should use a little common 
sense instead of so much muscle. Correct the 
faulty conditions and the engine will start at 
once. 

The simplicity of the causes leading to the 
above mentioned troubles is sufficient reason for 
their existence. 

Oiling a Gas Engine. The oiling of the 
engine should be done in a thorough manner. 
Use machine oil on the various parts of the en¬ 
gine, except in the cylinder. A special oil for 
gas engines should be used for the cylinders. 

Steam cylinder oil is not well adapted to a gas 
engine cylinder. A light cylinder oil, of high fire 
test, is best adapted to use in the gas engine 
cylinder. Some gas engines are fitted at the 
wrist pin and journal bearings with grease cups, 
which should be filled with shafting and set so 
as to feed automatically. 

When oil and grease cups are filled and all 
bearing parts that are liable to wear are oiled, 
the valve stems should be tried by lifting the 
valve from its seat a number of times after put¬ 
ting some kerosene oil on the stem with an oil 
can. The stems should be frequently examined 
and kerosene oil used occasionally to keep them 
clean. Never use ordinary lubricating oil on 
them. The heat simply burns it and leaves a 


234 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


gummy deposit on the stem which interferes with 
the free movement of the valve. 

It is said that oil is cheaper than machinery 
and we want to earnestly emphasize the truth of 
that statement. 

It should be good oil, however, for there is a 

— / 

great difference in the quality of oils, and good 
oil only can be considered if the cost of the ma¬ 
chine is kept in mind. 

Some of the so-called lubricating oils on the 
market have but little more value than so much 
water. 

It is not only a question of economy in using 
a good lubricant with an engine, but also of in¬ 
creasing the net power for effective work. 
This is especially true with the gas engine for 
it depends on the oil to make the piston and 
rings tight to hold both the compression and the 
high pressure of the explosion. 

The most accurate job of machining and fit¬ 
ting of the cylinder, piston and rings would not 
hold these pressures without a film of good gas en- 
ine oil between the piston and the cylinder walls. 

The importance of proper lubrication can 
hardly be overestimated as will be readily ap¬ 
parent when the action of a good oil, either on 
the cylinder walls or in a properly adjusted bear¬ 
ing is thoroughly understood. 

A good oil forms an almost frictionless film 
between the surfaces of the piston, rings and 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 235 


walls of the cylinder, or between the shaft and 
the bearing as the case may be, and thus prevents 
the metals from coming in direct contact. With¬ 
out direct frictional contact there is, of course, 
no wear or deterioration of the metals so long 
as the proper condition is maintained, hence we 
must conclude that the natural wear we figure 
on in the life of any machine is due to imperfect 
lubrication a portion of the time. 

It is a difficult thing to maintain a perfect 
condition at all times, but the use of good oil and 
proper attention to the oiling will greatly in¬ 
crease the life of the machine to say nothing of 
the saving of repairs, trouble and loss of time 
in repairing, etc. 

It does not follow, however, that an excessive 
amount of oil should be applied as is often done 
on the theory that if a little is good more is 
better. When too much oil is applied the sur¬ 
plus runs out of the bearing and is often wasted 
besides making a greasy, dirty engine. 

In the case of the cylinder too, much oil will 
accumulate and burn in the combustion chamber, 
leaving a carbon deposit on the walls of the com¬ 
pression space besides fouling the sparking 
mechanism and causing a disagreeable smoke at 
the exhaust. 

Probably the worst possible result of a too 
liberal use of oil is the danger of the machine 
running dry between spasmodic oilings. 


236 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


The operator, feeling sure that he has used 
plenty of oil to last a considerable length of 
time (which he has if it had been properly ap¬ 
plied) will neglect the machine and overlook the 
fact that only a limited amount of oil will be re¬ 
tained in the bearing. 

The all-important thing in perfect lubrica¬ 
tion is to supply a good oil frequently and regu¬ 
larly, or continuously if possible, to the parts 
where there would be great friction. 

Do not feel content in seeing that the oil is 
flowing, but know positively that it is going to 
the right place. 

Many fine bearings have been utterly ruined 
by the oil holes and channels becoming clogged 
so that the oil, though freely applied, could not 
reach all parts of the bearing. 

Cylinders and the more important bearings of 
the gas engine are generally oiled by pressure 
feed and sight feed oilers. 

These oiling devices should be kept in first 
class condition and set to feed the oil in the 
right quantity and regularly while the engine is 
running. 

Ordinary machine oils are of little value for 
gas engines because the fire test is entirely too 
low to stand the high heat of the cylinder and 
piston. 

Use a good gas engine oil, feeding it constantly 
or at least frequently and regularly, but do not 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 237 


be wasteful, keep in mind the old adage revised, 
Good oil is cheaper than machinery. 

For main bearings and similar places it is very 
common to use cup grease or what is sometimes 
called “hard oil” which is fed or forced to the 
bearing by a special grease cup. 

As the bearing warms up under service the 
grease melts and produces the film, similar to 
liquid oils, to prevent wear and relieve the fric¬ 
tion. The process of converting the grease to 
an oil film, being somewhat automatic, is a good 
point for cup grease as against liquid oil for 
some kinds of service, but do not forget that the 
quality of the grease to be used is just as impor¬ 
tant as with the liquid oils. 

Timing the Spark. The timing of the spark 
is of much greater importance than was realized 
for many years after the gas engine came into use. 

Although the charge under compression fires 
easily and burns rapidly, yet it requires a small 
period of time, and the spark must occur far 
enough ahead of the end of the stroke so that 
the charge will be ignited and the expansion tak¬ 
ing place when the piston starts on its power 
stroke. If the spark occurs too late a part of 
the effective power stroke is lost, while if the 
spark occurs too early the heat expansion begins 
before the piston reaches the end of its stroke. 
This will cause the engine to pound or perhaps 
stop, if the ignition occurs very much too early. 


238 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


The correct time for the spark depends en¬ 
tirely on the speed of the engine. At high speeds 
the spark must be advanced or made further 
ahead of the end of the stroke to give the nec¬ 
essary time for ignition, while at low speeds the 
spark may be retarded or made later. 

It is necessary to provide high speed engines 
with a device for retarding the spark when start- 
ting and changing to the advanced position 
after the engine gets up speed. 

Owing to the varying speeds used it is im¬ 
possible to give a set position for the correct 
point of ignition, but the proper timing of the 
spark may be readily determined by a little ex¬ 
perimenting with the engine under full load. 
The correct position will soon be ascertained 
by observing the results of early or late igni¬ 
tion. 

A gas engine will run with the valves and spark 
considerably out of time, but its full power and 
efficiency will not be developed unless the timing 
is right. 

Loose Flywheel. Sometimes a flywheel may 
be loose on a shaft and produce a rubbing noise 
instead of a series of thumps and pounds. This 
is often due to some part of the wheel rubbing 
against some other part of the engine or other 

But then it may be said that it 
requires no special training to make an operator 
careful of his flywheel. 


article nearby 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 239 

Pressure Leaks. There is much loss of 
power and waste of fuel from pressure leaks 
through sparker j oints and packed j oints. Many 
stationary engines are fitted with make-and- 
break mechanisms, which are designed to make 
the contact and separation of the igniter points 
within the compression space. This necessitates 
that at least one of these points be attached to a 
movable or rocker shaft extending through some 
part of the cylinder wall to the outside, to which 
an actuating device is attached. 

The very fact that this shaft requires move¬ 
ment demands either a ground shoulder or some 
other ground or packed joint to prevent the 
escape of the explosion pressure. The high ex¬ 
plosion pressure coming on at successive im¬ 
pulses is difficult to confine. 

When once the pressure finds the least avenue 
of escape, it is not long in enlarging it so that a 
large percentage of power force escapes without 
doing any effective service. 

The sparker mechanism of the make-and-break 
variety is usually attached to or mounted onto a 
plate or plug which is fitted into the sparker 
port in the cylinder walls. This plug or plate 
fits either into a ground seat or by means of a 
packed joint onto the cylinder, and in some in¬ 
stances is threaded into the cylinder walls. 


Water Jacket Temperature. The object 

of the water jacket on a gas engine cylinder is 


240 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


to maintain the cylinder at an even temperature 
without over-heating. If the cylinder were run 
perfectly hot, the expansion of the metals would 
be such that the piston - would soon stick, or 
seize, and the high temperature would consume 
the lubricating oil. To get the best results, the 
temperature of the water in the cylinder jacket 
should be as near 180 degrees as possible, but 
in the marine motor little attention is ever given 
to this. As long as the motor keeps reasonably 
cool and continues to work well, the average 
operator lets things alone. A number of motors 
have been failures owing to insufficient water- 
jacketing, and there are others which have had 
too much water-jacketing. The first means that 
the motors do not work at all, the latter, that 
they do not get the full benefit of the expansion 
of the gases and are consequently wasting 
gasoline. 

Pumps. All pumps on two-cycle motors have 
an impulse at every revolution of the crankshaft. 
This is unavoidable, but it is mechanically very 
bad practice, as the average marine motor will 
make about 500 revolutions per minute, and any 
plunger pump loses its efficiency above a speed 
of 300 strokes per minute. 

This is one reason why in practice these 
pumps give such a poor circulation. The remedy 
would be to gear the pump so that the motor 
would make about four revolutions to one of the 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 241 


pump, and increase the size of the pump. This 
would, however, add considerably to the cost of 
the engine. On some engines a pump of the 
rotary type is used, and while these pumps will 
deliver a perfectly steady and constant flow they 
will soon lose their efficiency if there be any sand 
or grit in the water. 

Vaporizing Valves. While these valves are 
exceedingly simple and operated entirely by the 
suction of the engine, they are capable of giv¬ 
ing a great deal of trouble. At the point where 
the gasoline is fed under the seat of the valve 
the opening is generally less than one thirty- 
second of an inch, and it very often happens 
that a small particle of foreign substance 
contained in the gasoline will settle at this 
point. 

When the valve is pressed up by hand, the gaso* 
line will apparently flow all right, but when the 
engine is started it will make but a few revo- 
lutions and stop for want of gasoline. The 
small particle, by the quick suction of the en¬ 
gine, will be drawn into the gasoline opening, 
shutting off the flow of gasoline, falling back 
again when the engine stops, in other words, 
acting as a check valve. This is a very common 
occurrence, and a small wire for cleaning the 
gasoline inlet should always be on hand. It 
often happens that the spring in the vaporizer 
becomes weak, and in this case it will admit of 


242 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


an overcharge of air. To remedy this, remove 
the spring and stretch it out. In order to de¬ 
termine how much the spring has been stretched, 
it is a good plan to measure it first. 

Gasoline Pipes. A source of trouble is in 
the location of the gasoline tank. This in many 
cases has to be placed so low that if the boat is 
loaded by the head the gasoline will not flow to 
the vaporizer when the tank is nearly empty. 
A source of annoyance is the practice of running 
the gasoline pipe around under the lockers, es¬ 
pecially where the gasoline tank is low, as in 
this case the pressure of the gasoline in the tank 
is influenced by the rolling of the boat or over¬ 
loading on either side. In some cases the gaso¬ 
line is entirely shut off when the boat is out of 
trim. The gasoline pipe should in all cases be 
led down as close to the keel of the boat as 
possible. 

Regrinding Valves. The valves of a gas 
engine have to be reground in case any leakage 
occurs, for, a leak once started rapidly grows 
worse and a serious leak makes starting diffi¬ 
cult or perhaps impossible. An engine may run 
along for many months without leakage of 
valves, but it is good policy to make occasional 
tests or inspection to avoid future trouble. 

All valves made by experienced manufactur¬ 
ers are provided with a slot for a screwdriver as 
a means of rotating the valve on its seat. 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 243- 


The best material for grinding, tripoli ground, 
but as this may be bard to obtain in some 
places flour of emery ma) be substituted. Flour 
of emery may be purchased at any drug store, 
but it does not grind so rapidly or make as 
smooth a surface as the tripoli. 

A little lard oil is used to retain ihe grinding 
material between the valve and its seat. If lard 
oil is not at hand common kerosene will answer 
the purpose. Ordinary machine oil is a very 
poor substitute and should not be used if lard 
oil can possibly be obtained. 

Apply the oil and grinding material to the 
face of the valve and replace in its position in 
the guide. With a common bit brace and screw¬ 
driver blade revolve the valve on its seat until 
an even bearing is obtained. An ordinary screw 
will do if the bit brace and screw-driver blade 
are not available. 

Use a firm steady pressure on ihe valve while 
grinding but not too much. Lift the valve from 
its seat at short intervals to allow the oil and 
grinding material to run back over the surfaces. 
Clean the valve and seat occasionally and stop as 
soon as a full even bearing is shown. 

Restricted Exhaust or Inlet Ports. A re¬ 
stricted exhaust may retain a higher degree of 
heat in the cylinder and thereby assist in main¬ 
taining incandescent some projecting point in 
the combustion chamber. 


244 GAS and oil engine hand-book 


Restricted valve ports are a hindrance to 
the development of power. The valve propor¬ 
tions should always be carefully figured from the 
piston speed and the cylinder area. 

The inlet valve area should be such as to give 
the gases a speed of from 90 to 100 feet per second. 
The exhaust gases should leave the cylinder at 
from seventy-five to eighty-five feet per second 
at atmospheric pressure. 

The exhaust valve should be larger than the 
inlet valve, because at the time of opening 
the exhaust valve there is a pressure of from 
twenty-five to thirty-five pounds in the cylin¬ 
der to relieve, and the velocity of the exhaust 
gases at the moment of release is above 100 feet 
per second, and if it had to pass through a re¬ 
stricted valve port it would maintain the initial 
high speed throughout the exhaust stroke of the 
piston, resulting in back pressure during the en. 
tire exhaust stroke. 

The point, then, is to figure the exhaust port 
of such proportions as to relieve the exhaust 
gases at an average speed throughout the ex¬ 
haust stroke of not over 100 feet per second. 

It is the height of folly to have a big cylinder 
port, and then choke the passage with a little 
valve or vice versa. 

The passage should be of uniform area and 
of ample capacity from the cylinder port to the 
end of the pipe. 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 245 

Types of Gasoline Engines. When choos¬ 
ing a gasoline engine for operating a boat there 
are a number of points to be dealt with. The 
gasoline engine is expected to be in working 
order at all times and it must never break down. 
If it does, the operator will decry the gasoline en¬ 
gine, its builders and all who have anything to do 
with it. If a steam engine breaks down, there may 
be some strong words used with reference to its 
maker, but as a rule nothing is said against the 
steam engine as a prime mover, for the simple 
reason that we are accustomed to its vagaries. 

While much more is expected of the gasoline 
engine than of the steam engine, the previous 
assertion is none the less true that reliability of 
operation is the primary consideration. Economy 
of fuel, which is a matter of first importance with 
all prime movers on land, becomes a secondary 
requirement as far as the marine gasoline engine 
is concerned, and more especially when these 
engines are to be used for small powers. It is a 
mistaken notion that anyone can operate a gaso¬ 
line engine. A child will get on very well after 
being taught, and until something happens. 
Then comes the necessity for a man with rea¬ 
soning powers that are well developed and with 
a clear head. All kinds of things may happen 
to a vessel, if its motive power gives out. . A 
great many things may happen to a gasoline 
engine in indifferent hands. 


246 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOlv 

Before going further it may be necessary to 
explain briefly the principles of operation of the 
two types used for marine purposes. These 
types are the four-cycle engine, in which there 
is but one impulse for each two revolutions of 
the crankshaft, and the two-cycle engine, in 
which an impusle occurs at each revolution of 1 
the crankshaft. Of the two, the four-cycle 
engine is most used for stationary purposes, but 
in marine practice the two-cycle engine is in the 
lead. Although not generally considered as eco¬ 
nomical of fuel as the four-cycle engine, it can 
be built much lighter for the same power, and 
the great frequency of the impulses makes it 
much steadier in operation. This can perhaps 
be realized better when it is remembered that 
a single cylinder steam engine receives an im¬ 
pulse at every stroke of the piston, or two im¬ 
pulses at every revolution of the crankshaft, 
while the four-cycle gasoline engine receives but 
one impulse to two revolutions, or one impulse 
to four in the steam engine. The steam engine 
also receives two impulses during the same time 
that the two-cycle engine receives one. 

Multiple-Cylinder Engines. Multiple-cylinder 
engines of the two-cycle type have until quite 
recently been constructed by adding succes¬ 
sively separate engines. While these in a great 
many cases have given satisfaction, they 
have not as a whole been satisfactory. The 



GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 247 

chief trouble being that when operated by one 
carbureter, they have been inclined to flood in 
the after-cylinders. The gasoline gas being of 
greater specific gravity than air, has a tendency 
to go to the lowest point, which in the majority 
of boats would be the after-cylinders. The dis¬ 
tance apart of the separate engines also tending 
to condense the vaporized gasoline, flooding the 
crank bases of the engines with the consequence 
that no two of the cylinders have a uniform mix¬ 
ture of gas, and in many cases the after cylin¬ 
ders refuse to work at all. In order to avoid 
these difficulties, many multiple-cylinder engines 
have separate carbureters for each crank case. 
While this is all right in theory it is not good 
practice, as it is difficult to obtain the correct 
regulation of each cylinder when they are all in 
operation. There have been placed on the mar¬ 
ket a number of multiple-cylinder engines with 
the cylinders in one integral casting and sur¬ 
rounded by one water-jacket. By this means 
the cylinders are brought very close together, us¬ 
ing one carbureter, the connections from it to 
the engines by this plan are very short and 
compact. These engines in their very best form 
are not adapted to be operated by a novice. 
Owing to their high speed and the number of 
moving parts, it is very difficult to detect and 
locate troubles of any kind, and determine in 
which cylinder the trouble exists. The four-cycle 


248 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

multiple-cylinder engine is an entirely differ* 
ent proposition, and especially, the double cylin¬ 
der, which is very successful. The two-cylinder 
four-cycle engine produces the same results and 
only has the same number of movements as in 
the single-cylinder two-cycle, therefore a four¬ 
cycle four-cylinder is equivalent to a two-cylin¬ 
der two-cycle engine. One of the principal 
troubles of the multiple-cylinder high speed 
engine is the ignition, as they are very hard on 
generators and batteries. 

Selecting a Boat Engine. The thing for 
the prospective purchaser to do is naturally 
to write to different makers of gasoline engines 
and obtain their catalogues and price lists. It 
will be found that each one is building the best 
engine on earth, if his story is to be believed. 
It is a sad truth, indeed, that there are many 
poor gasoline engines offered for sale in the open 
market. Several catalogues will probably con¬ 
tain an engine very nearly the size which has 
been selected for the new boat. If the catalogues 
received contain testimonials from persons who 
live in the vicinity, make it a point to call on 

them, and have a private talk with them about 
their engines. 

Find out how much the engine has been run, 
and obtain a narrative of all experiences with 
the engine when running. Find out the longest 
as well as the shortest period of time it has taken to 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 249 



get the engine started, and how long it has been run 
at any one time without stopping. Find out if 
the engine is addicted to thumping or pounding 
in any part of the mechanism, and whether such 


FIG. 60 

Single-cylinder, two-cycle Marine Motor. 

a condition is of frequent occurrence, or only oc¬ 
casional, and also how long die ignition appa¬ 
ratus will last. If it be found that the engine 
transmits very little vibration to the boat, it may 
be presumed that the engine is well balanced. 




250 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

Another way to tell whether an engine is in 
good balance is to see if it will run for quite a 
little time after the ignition current has been cut off. 
Of two engines, that are of the same size, and 
equally well lubricated, and which have the same 
friction resistance, the engine will run the longer 
after power is shut off that is the better bal¬ 
anced. When resting the hand upon the cylin¬ 
der head while the engine is running idle, if a 
knock is perceptible it is a certain sign that it is 
out of balance. 

If the engine is counterbalanced in the fly¬ 
wheel instead of on the crank jaws it gives a 
twisting movement to the shaft, and the balanc¬ 
ing is imperfect. A well-balanced engine should 
have the counter-weight as nearly opposite the 
the crank pin as it is possible to place it. In 
a two-cylinder engine with the crank pins at 180 
degrees, or in a three-cylinder engine with the 
cranks at 120 degrees, a balancing effect is ob¬ 
tained which is much better than that produced 
by a counter-weight. It is the custom with 
some builders to put the crank pins on the same 
side of the shaft tor a two-cylinder engine, for 
the reason that the impulses are better distributed. 
It is generally admitted that a better mechan¬ 
ical balance is obtained with the crank pins 
at 180 degrees and in a vertical two-cylinder 
engine of the four-cycle type with an enclosed 
crank case, the latter arrangement avoids the 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 251 

pumping action that occurs when the cianks aie 

on the same side of the shaft. 

If the counter-weight be in the flywheel, see 
if it has any side motion when the engine is run¬ 
ning, or, in other words, see if the flywheel is 
out of true sideways. If such is the case, it 
shows that the crank shaft is too weak for an 
engine of this kind. 

Find out if the bearings give trouble from over 
heating, and be particular to ask for any ex¬ 
perience in this matter. Find out if it is nec¬ 
essary to watch the engine at all times, or 
whether you may be secure in giving the 
engine only an occasional glance to see if it 
is running all right. 

Handling Marine Engine with Reverse 

Lever. In handling the engine when desiring to 
make a stop, no matter whether equipped with 
reversing gear or reversing propeller, never stop 
the engine until the actual stopping point is 
reached. Many accidents are caused by opera¬ 
tors getting excited and stopping the motor when 
it should have been allowed to run and depend 
on the reversing mechanism. When the engine 
has no reversing device and is dependent upon 
reversing the engine, always make the approach 

to a landing from the side. 

Propellers for Motor Boats. The propel- 
ler wheels used on motor boats are, as a rule, 
smaller in diameter than employed in steam 


252 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 



practice, the reason for this being that the gaso- 
line engine is usually run at a higher rate of 
speed, and where no reversing gear is used, the 
engine has to start against the full load of the 


FIG. 61 

Two-cylinder, two-cycle Marine Motor. 


wheel. Of late, the manufacturers have been 
using wheels of larger diameter and less pitch, 
the etieet of this being to increase the efficiency 
of the propeller, making the engine easier to 
start, decreasing the number of revolutions some- 



GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 253- 

what, but adding to the speed of the boat. In 
order to avoid the use of the reversing gears in¬ 
side the boat, the reversing propeller is used to 
a large extent. These wheels, although of many 
different patterns, are all practically of the same 
principle, the blades being turned by the move¬ 
ment of a sleeve surrounding the propeller shaft, 
which revolves with the shaft. There are no gears 
to intermesh or any necessity for slowing down 
as with the inside reversing mechanism. These 
propellers will reverse at full speed as they al¬ 
ways travel in the same direction, they take hold 
of the water instantly. 

The reversing propeller is necessarily some¬ 
what weak structurally. It being impossible,, 
for mechanical reasons, to design it as a per¬ 
fectly true screw. It therefore lacks the effi¬ 
ciency of a solid propeller. 

The word pitch, as applied to the propeller 
wheel, refers to it in the same sense as to the 
pitch of a screw, as the propeller in action should 
be a perfect screw. The pitch of the propeller 
designates the number of feet that it would 
travel in one revolution, supposing it to be a 
screw. If a propeller wheel is 20 inches in diam¬ 
eter and has 30 inches pitch, it denotes that it 
will travel 30 inches in each revolution. It is by 
this means that calculations are made on the 
speed of the boat. In small motor boats any esti¬ 
mates based on these calculations will, as a rule. 


‘254 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


prove anything but reliable, as the proportion 
of beam to length is in all cases excessive in 
comparison with larger vessels. Of course, as 
the pitch of the propeller wheel is decreased, a 
slower screw is had and consequently a more 
powerful one. For this reason it is becoming 
the practice of high speed boats to use a wheel 
of the least possible pitch, and in order to gain 
on the travel of the screw to increase the num¬ 
ber of the revolutions of the propeller. 

The form and general design of the propeller 
have been so extensively experimented with, 
that the subject is almost worn threadbare, and 
it is sufficient to say that the true screw propel¬ 
ler will, in all probability, remain as at first the 
standard of excellence. 

Couplings and Thrust Bearings. On the 

opposite end of the crank shaft from the fly¬ 
wheel, is the shaft coupling and thrust bearing. 
The thrust bearing, which is intended to take 
up the thrust or push from the propeller, is 
sometimes made up of a number of balls fitted 
in a cage between the couplings and the after 
bearing of the engine, or in a great many cases 
a groove is turned in the coupling for a ball race, 
the oposite side being a flat, hardened steel 
washer. While this is a very neat and effect¬ 
ive arrangement, it has been found from actual 
experience that ball-bearings in marine work are 
not a success. The older method, and the one 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 255 


still used on large marine engines, is the ring 
thrust, composed of a shaft with a number of 
collars turned on it which mesh into a set of 
babbitt metal rings fastened to the keel and 
entirely separate from the engine. The neces¬ 
sity of a good thrust bearing, is sadly neglected 
by the launch owner, as a thrust bearing of 
good design, if carefully looked after, will in the 
majority of cases not only keep the engine in 
much better working order and save a good deal 
of wear, but in many cases prevent a broken 
connecting rod. 

Gas Engine Design. The builders of gas 
engines have brought out a great number of dif¬ 
ferent designs in construction. 

Out of all this there have been evolved certain 
constructions that have come to be recognized 
as standard and followed by .most builders. 

Cylinders are built in either a vertical or hori¬ 
zontal position. 

The principal claims for the vertical con¬ 
struction are: 

Minimum floor space occupied, impulses de¬ 
livered in the line of the foundation, thus les¬ 
sening the vibration. Less wear on the piston 
and cylinder by supporting the weight of the 
piston on the connecting rod instead of allow¬ 
ing it to lie on one side in the cylinder. 

These advantages are met by claims for a 
horizontal construction in that better lubrica- 


256 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

tion of the piston and cylinder walls is obtained 
by feeding the oil on top of the piston, so that 
it will flow by gravity to all parts of the wear¬ 
ing surface. 

As both constructions are in demand and both 
give excellent results in practical use, it becomes 
a matter of taste with the purchaser, and many 
manufacturers settle the question by building 
both the vertical and horizontal types. 

In most gas engines the connecting rod is 
attached directly to the piston thus eliminating 
the heavy crosshead and piston rod peculiar to 
the steam engine. As the mass or weight of 
reciprocating parts is thus greatly reduced the 
gas engine thereby approaches the ideaLengine. 

A point in late design is the tendency to mul¬ 
tiple-cylinder construction, using two, three, four 
and sometimes six cylinders. Such construc¬ 
tions are much more expensive to build, but the 
important advantages of less weight for a given 
power, constant torque or turning movement, less 
vibration due to better balance and the increased 
chances against complete disability are bringing 
multiple-cylinder engines into general favor. 

In an engine with two or more cylinders the 
principle of operation for each cylinder is the 
same as for a single-cylinder engine. The cylin¬ 
ders are, however, made to deliver their impulses 
one after the other, the time between the im¬ 
pulses being made as nearly equal as possible. 


GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 257 


TABLES 


Density and Specific Gravity Equivalents. 


Baume 

Specific Gravity 

Baume 

Specific Gravity 

Baume 

Specific Gravity 

10° 

1.0000 

37° 

0.8395 

64° 

.7423 

11° 

0.9930 

38° 

.8346 

65° 

.7205 

12° 

.9801 

39° 

.8299 

66° 

.7108 

13° 

.9791 

40° 

.8251 

67° 

.7133 

14° 

.9722 

41° 

.8204 

68° 

.7097 

\ 15° 

.9658 

42° 

.8157 

69° 

.7061 

16° 

.9594 

43° 

.8110 

70° 

.7025 

17° 

.9530 

44° 

.8063 

71° 

.6990 

18° 

.9466 

45° 

.8017 

72° 

.6956 

19° 

.9402 

46° 

.7971 

73° 

.6923 

j 20° 

.9339 

47° 

.7927 

74° 

.6889 

21° 

.9280 

48° 

.7883 

75° 

.6856 

22° 

.9222 

49° 

.7838 

76° 

.6823 

23° 

.9163 

50° 

.7794 

77° 

.6789 

24° 

.9105 

51° 

.7752 

78° 

.6756 

1 25° 

.9047 

52° 

.7711 

79° 

.6722 

26° 

.8989 

53° 

.7670 

80° 

.6689 

27° 

.8930 

54° 

.7628 

81° 

.6656 

28° 

.8872 

55° 

.7587 

82° 

.6619 

29° 

.8814 

56° 

.7546 

83° 

.6583' 

30° 

.8755 

57° 

.7508 

84° 

.6547 

31° 

.8702 

58° 

.7470 

85° 

.6511 

' 32° 

.8650 

59° 

.7432 

86° 

.6481 

33° 

.8597 

60° 

.7394 

87° 

.6451 

34° 

.8544 

61° 

.7357 

88° 

.6422 

35° 

.8492 

62° 

.7319 

89° 

.6392 

' 36° 

.8443 

63° 

.7281 

90° 

.6363 


The scale generally used for indicating the densities 
of liquids is that of Baume. Zero on this scale corre¬ 
sponds to the density of a solution of salt of specified 
proportions, and 10 degrees corresponds to the density 
of distilled water at a specified temperature or to a 
specific gravity of unity. The portion of the stem of 
the instrument lying between these two points is di¬ 
vided into ten equal parts and the rest of the stem is 
divided into divisions of equal size up to 90 degrees. 
Higher numbers indicate lower specific gravities. The 
above table shows the relation existing between the 
Baume scale and specific gravity proper. 




















258 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


Dimensions of Machine Screws. 


Number of 
Screw. 

Threads per 
Inch. 

Diameter of 
Body. 

Diameter at 

Bottom of 

Thread. 

No. of Tap Drill 

for Full Thread. 

No. of Drill for 

Body. 

Diameter of Head. 

Flat Head. 

Button 

Head. 

Philister 

Head. 

2 

56 

.084 

.053 

54 

44 

.16 

.15 

.13 

4 

36 

.110 

.062 

52 

34 

.22 

.20 

.17 

6 

32 

.136 

.082 

45 

28 

.27 

.25 

.22 

8 

32 

.163 

.109 

35 

19 

.32 

.29 

.26 

10 

32 

.189 

.135 

29 

11 

.37 

.35 

.30 

12 

24 

.216 

.144 

27 

2 

.43 

.39 

.34 

14 

~20 

.242 

.156 

22 

1 

4 

.48 

.44 

.39 

16 

20 

.268 

.182 

14 

9 

3J 

.53 

.49 

.43 

IS 

18 

.294 

.198 

8 

19 

64 

.58 

.52 

.47 


Safe Working Load of Steel Balls. 


Diameter of ball. 

i 

4 

T 5 6 

3 

8 

iV 

i 


I 

Working load per 
ball in pounds . . 

500 

780 

1125 

1530 

2000 

2530 

3125 


Composition of Alloys. 



a 

Eh 

Copper. 

Zinc. 

Antimony 

Lead. 

Bismuth. 

Bronze, for Engine bearings . 

13 

110 

1 




Brass, for light work, other 







than bearings. 


2 

1 




Bronze flanges, to stand braz- 







ing. 


32 

1 


i 


Genuine Babbitt metal . . . 

10 

1 


1 

1 

• • • 

Bronze, for bushings. 

16 

130 

1 




Metal, to expand in cooling for 







patterns . 




2 

q 

1 

Genuine bronze. 

2 

90 

5 


2 


Spelter, hard. 


1 

1 




Spelter, soft. 

1 

4 

3 








1 









































































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 259 


STRENGTH AND WEIGHT OF MATERIALS. 


Material. 

Tensile 

Strength in 

pounds per 

square inch. 

Resistance 

to Compres¬ 

sion. 

Weight per 

cubic inch. 

Weight per 

cubic foot. 

Aluminum . 

12,000 


.094 

162 

Brass—Cast. 

18^000 

10,000 

.290 

504 

Sheet. 

23,000 

12,500 

.295 

510 

Bronze—Aluminum. 

60,000 

12,000 

.290 

500 

Phosphor . . 

63,000 

12,000 

.300 

530 

Copper—Cast. 

18,000 

30,000 

. 3L3 

542 

Sheet. 

30,000 

40,000 

.317 

548 

Wire 

50,000 


.317 

5d8 

Gun Metal . 

36,000 

15,000 

.290 

504 

Iron—Cast. 

16,000 

100,000 

.260 

450 

Malleable . . . 

18,000 

80,000 

.267 

460 

Wrought. . . . 

50,000 

36,000 

.280 

480 

T.end . 

33,000 


.410 

711 

Steel—Tool. 

100,000 

40,000 

.284 

490 

Cr. Cast. 

63,000 

36,000 

284 

490 

Mild. 

60,000 

36,000 

.284 

490 

C. Rolled .... 

63,000 

40,000 

.284 

490 


Dimensions of Involute Tooth Spur Gears. 


Diametrical 

Pitch. 

Circular 

Pitch. 

Width of 
Tooth on 
Pitch 
Line. 

Working 
Depth of 
Tooth. 

Actual 
Depth of 
Tooth. 

Clear¬ 
ance at 
Bottom 
of Tooth. 

1 

3.142 

1.571 

2.000 

2.157 

0.157 

2 

1.571 

0.785 

1.000 

1.078 

0.078 

3 

1.047 

0.524 

0.667 

0.719 

0.052 

4 

0.785 

0.393 

0.500 

0.539 

0.039 

5 

0.628 

0.314 

0.400 

0.431 

0.031 

6 

0.524 

0.262 

0.333 

0.360 

0.026 

7 

0.447 

0.224 

0.286 

0.308 

0.022 

8 

0.393 

0.196 

0.250 

0.270 

0.019 

10 

0.314 

0.157 

0.200 

0.216 

0.016 

12 

0.262 

0.131 

0.167 

0.180 

0.013 

14 

0.224 

0.112 

0.143 

0.154 

0.011 

16 

0.196 

0.098 

0.125 

0.135 

0.009 










































260 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


Melting Point of Metals. 


Metal. 

Temperature 

in Degrees 

Fahrenheit. 

Metal. 

Temperature 

in Degrees 

Fahrenheit. 

Aluminum. 

1160° 

Lead. .. 

620° 

Bronze. 

1690° 

Platinum 

3230° 

Copper. 

1930° 

Silver. . 

1730° 

Gold. 

1900° 

Steel. . 

2400° 

Iron—Cast . 

2000° 

Tin. 

445° 

Wrought . 

3000° 

Zinc. 

780° 


Weight per Cubic Foot of Substances. 


Materials. 

Weight 

in 

Pounds 

Ash, White. 

38 

Asphaltum . 

87 

Brick—Pressed. . . 

150 

Common. . 

125 

Cement—Louisville 

50 

Portland 

90 

Cherry. 

42 

Chestnut. 

41 

Clay, Potter’s .... 

110 

Coal—Anthracite. 

93 

Bituminous 

84 

Earth. 

95 

Ebony . 

76 

Elm. 

35 

Flint. 

162 

Gold, Pure. 

1204 

Hemlock. 

25 

Hickory. 

53 

Ivory . 

114 

Lignum Vitae. 

S3 

Magnesium . . ., . . 

109 

Mahogany. 

53 

Maple. 

49 

Marble. 

168 


Materials. 

Weight 

in 

Pounds 

Mercury. 

849 

Mica. 

183 

Oak, White. 

50 

Petroleum. 

55 

Pine—White .... 

25 

Northern. . 

34 

Southern. . 

45 

Platinum. 

1342 

Quartz. 

165 

Resin. 

69 

Sand—Dry. 

98 

Wet. ...... 

140 

Sandstone. 

151 

Shale. 

162 

Silver. 

655 

Slate. 

175 

Spruce. 

25 

Sulphur. 

125 

Svcamore . 

37 

Tar. 

62 

Peat. 

26 

Walnut, Black . . . 

38 

Water—Distilled . 

62$ 

Sea. 

64 








































































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 261 


Squares and Square Roots of Numbers from 1 to 100. 


Nos. 

Squares. 

Square 

Root. 

Nos. 

Squares. 

Square 

Root. 

1 

1 

1.000 

51 

2601 

7.141 

2 

4 

1.414 

52 

2704 

7.211 

3 

9 

1.732 

53 

2809 

7.280 

4 

16 

2.000 

54 

2916 

7.349 

5 

25 

2.236 

65 

3025 

7.416 

6 

36 

2.449 

56 

3136 

7.483 

7 

49 

2.646 

57 

3249 

7.550 

8 

64 

2.8*8 

58 

3364 

7.616 

9 

81 

3.000 

59 

8481 

7.681 

10 

100 

3.162 

60 

3600 

7.746 

11 

121 

3.317 

61 

3721 

7.810 

12 

144 

3.464 

62 

3844 

7.874 

13 

169 

3.606 

63 

3969 

7.937 

14 

196 

3.742 

64 

4096 

8.000 

15 

225 

3.873 

65 

4225 

8.062 

16 

256 

4.000 

66 

4356 

8.124 

17 

289 

4.1*3 

67 

4489 

8.185 

18 

324 

4.243 

68 

4624 

8.246 

19 

361 

4.359 

69 

4761 

8.31.7 

20 

400 

4.472 

70 

4900 

8.367 

21 

441 

4.583 

71 

5041 

8.426 

22 

484 

4.690 

72 

5184 

8.485 

23 

529 

4.796 

73 

5329 

8.544 

24 

576 

4.899 

74 

5476 

8.602 

25 

625 

5.000 

75 

5625 

8.660 

26 

676 

5.099 

76 

5776 

8.718 

27 

729 

5.196 

77 

5929 

8.775 

28 

784 

5.292 

78 

6084 

8.832 

29 

841 

5.385 

79 

6241 

8.888 

30 

900 

5.477 

80 

6400 

9.944 

31 

961 

5.568 

81 

6561 

9.000 

32 

1024 

5.657 

82 

6724 

9.055 

33 

1089 

5.745 

83 

6889 

9.110 

34 

1156 

5.831 

84 

7056 

9.165 

35 

1225 

5.916 

85 

7225 

9.220 

36 

1296 

6.000 

86 

7396 

9.274 

37 

1369 

6.083 

87 

7569 

9.327 

38 

1444 

6.164 

88 

7744 

9.381 

39 

1521 

6.245 

89 

7921 

9.434 

40 

1600 

6.325 

90 

8100 

9.487 

41 

1681 

6.403 

91 

8281 

9.539 

' -r2 

1764 

6.481 

92 

8464 

9.592 

43 

1849 

6.557 

93 

8649 

9.644 

44 

1936 

6.633 

94 

8836 

9.695 

45 

2025 

6.708 

95 

9025 

9.747 

46 

2116 

6.782 

96 

9216 

9.798 

47 

2209 

6.856 

97 

9409 

9.849 

48 

2304 

6.928 

98 

9604 

9.900 

49 

2401 

7.000 

99 

9801 

9.950 

50 

2500 

7.071 

100 

10000 

10.000 

























262 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


Areas and Circumferences of Circles from 0.05 to 
8.SO, Advancing by ^ of one inch. 


Diam. 

Area. 

Circum. 


05 

.0019 


16 


10 

.0078 


31 • 


15 

.017 


47 


20 

.031 


63 


25 

.049 


78 


30 

.070 


94 


35 

.096 

1 

09 


40 

.12 

1 

26 


45 

.16 

1 

41 


50 

.19 

1 

57 


55 

.24 

1 

73 


60 

.28 

1 

88 


65 

.33 

2 

04 


70 

.38 

2 

19 


75 

.44 

2 

36 


80 

.50 

2 

51 


85 

.57 

2 

67 


90 

.64 

2 

83 


95 

.71 

2 

98 

1 

00 

.78 

3 

14 

1 

05 

.86 

3 

29 

1 

.10 

.95 

3 

46 

1 

.15 

1.03 

3 

61 

1 

.20 

1.13 

3 

77 

1 

.25 

1.23 

3 

93 

1 

.30 

1.33 

4 

08 

1 

.35 

1.43 

4 

24 

1 

.40 

1.54 

4 

39 

1 

.45 

1.65 

4 

56 

1 

.50 

1.77 

4 

71 

1 

.55 

1.89 

4 

87 

1 

.60 

2.01 

5 

03 

1 

.65 

2.14 

5 

.18 

1 

.70 

2.27 

5 

.34 

1 

.75 

2.40 

5 

.49 

1 

.80 

2.54 

5 

.65 

1 

.85 

2.69 

5 

.81 

1 

.90 

2.84 

5 

.97 

1 

.95 

2.99 

6 

.13 

2 

.00 

3.14 

6 

.28 

2 

.05 

3.30 

6 

.44 

2 

.10 

3.46 

6 

.59 


Diam. 

Area. 

Circum. 

2.15 

3.63 

6.75 

2.20 

3.80 

6.91 

2.25 

3.98 

7.07 

2.30 

4.15 

7.22 

2.35 

4.34 

7.38 

2.40 

4.52 

7.54 

2.45 

4.71 

7.69 

2.50 

4.91 

7.85 

2.55 

5.11 

8.01 

2.60 

5.31 

8.17 

2.65 

5.56 

8.32 

2.70 

5.72 

8.48 

2.75 

5.94 

8.64 

2.80 

6.16 

8.79 

2.85 

6.38 

8.95 

2.90 

6.60 

9.11 

2.95 

6.83 

9.27 

3.00 

7.07 

9.42 

3.05 

7.31 

9.58 

3.10 

7.55 

9.74 

3.15 

7.79 

9.89 

3.20 

8.04 

10.05 

3.25 

8.29 

10.21 

3.30 

8.55 

10.. 37 

3.35 

8.81 

10.52 

3.40 

9.08 

10.68 

3.45 

9.35 

10.84 

3.50 

9.62 

10.99 

3.55 

9.89 

11.15 

3.60 

10.18 

11.31 

3.65 

10.46 

11.47 

3.70 

10.75 

11.62 

3.75 

11.04 

11.78 

3.80 

11.34 

11.94 

3.85 

11.64 

12.09 

3.90 

11.94 

12.25 

3.95 

12.25 

12.41 

4.00 

12.57 

12.57 

4.05 

12.88 

12.72 

4.10 

13.20 

12.88 

4.15 

13.53 

13.04 

4.20 

13.85 

13.19 


















GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 263 


Diam. 

Area. 

Circum. j 

4. 

25 

14. 

19 

13. 

35 

4. 

30 

14. 

52 

13. 

51 

4. 

35 

14. 

86 

13. 

66 

4. 

40 

15. 

20 

13. 

82 

4. 

45 

15. 

55 

13. 

98 

4. 

50 

15. 

90 

14. 

14 

4. 

55 

16. 

25 

14. 

29 

4. 

60 

16. 

62 

14. 

45 

4. 

65 

16. 

98 

14. 

61 

4. 

70 

17. 

35 

14. 

76 

4. 

75 

17. 

73 

14. 

92 

4 

80 

18. 

09 

15. 

08 

4 

85 

18. 

47 

15 

24 

4 

90 

18 

86 

15 

39 

4 

95 

19 

24 

15 

55 

5 

00 

19 

63 

15 

71 

5 

05 

20 

03 

15 

86 

5 

10 

20 

43 

16 

02 

5 

15 

20 

84 

16 

18 

5 

20 

21 

23 

16 

34 

5 

.25 

21 

65 

16 

.49 

5 

.30 

22 

.06 

16 

.65 

5 

.35 

22 

.48 

16 

.81 

5 

.40 

22 

.90 

16 

.96 

5 

.45 

23 

.33 

17 

.12 

5 

.50 

23 

.76 

17 

.28 

5 

.55 

24 

.19 

17 

.44 

5 

.60 

24 

.63 

17 

.59 

5 

.65 

25 

.07 

17 

.75 

5 

.70 

25 

.52 

17 

.91 

5 

.75 

25 

.97 

18 

.06 

5 

.80 

26 

.42 

18 

.22 

5 

.85 

26 

.88 

18 

.38 

5 

.90 

27 

.34 

18 

.54 

5 

.95 

27 

.80 

18 

.69 

6 

.00 

28 

.27 

IS 

.85 

6 

.05 

28 

.75 

19 

.01 

6 

. 10 

29 

.22 

19 

.16 

6 

. 15 

29 

.70 

19 

.32 

6 

.20 

30 

.19 

19 

.48 

6 

.25 

30 

.68 

19 

.63 

6 

.30 

•31 

.17 

19 

.79 

6 

.35 

31 

.67 

19 

.95 

6 

.40 

32 

.17 

20 

.11 


Diam. 

Area. 

Circum. 

6. 

45 

32. 

67 

20. 

26 

6. 

50 

33. 

18 

20. 

42 

6. 

55 

33. 

69 

20. 

58 

6. 

60 

34. 

21 

20. 

73 

6. 

65 

34. 

73 

20. 

89 

6. 

70 

35. 

26 

21. 

05 

6. 

75 

35. 

78 

21. 

20 

6. 

80 

36. 

32 

21. 

36 

6. 

85 

36. 

85 

21. 

52 

6. 

90 

37. 

39 

21. 

68 

6. 

95 

37. 

94 

21. 

83 

7. 

00 

38. 

48 

21. 

99 

7. 

05 

39. 

04 

22. 

15 

7. 

10 

39. 

59 

22. 

30 

7. 

15 

40. 

15 

22. 

46 

7. 

20 

40. 

71 

09 

W . 

62 

7 

25 

41. 

28 

22. 

78 

7 

30 

41 

85 

22. 

93 

7 

35 

42 

43 

23 

09 

7 

40 

43 

01 

23 

25 

7 

45 

43 

59 

23 

40 

7 

50 

44 

18 

23 

56 

7 

.55 

44 

77 

23 

72 

7 

.60 

45 

36 

23 

88 

7 

.65 

45 

96 

24 

03 

7 

.70 

46 

.57 

24 

19 

7 

.75 

47 

.17 

24 

.35 

7 

.80 

47 

.78 

24 

.50 

7 

.85 

48 

.39 

24 

.66 

7 

.90 

49 

.02 

24 

.82 

7 

.95 

49 

.64 

24 

.97 

8 

.00 

50 

.26 

25 

13 

8 

.05 

50 

.89 

25 

.29 

8 

.10 

51 

.53 

25 

.43 

8 

.15 

52 

.17 

25 

.60 

8 

.20 

52 

.81 

25 

.76 

8 

.25 

53 

.46 

25 

.92 

8 

.30 

54 

.11 

26 

.07 

8 

.35 

54 

.76 

26 

.23 

8 

.40 

55 

.42 

26 

.39 

8 

.45 

56 

.08 

26 

. 55 

8 

.50 

56 

.74 

26 

.70 

8 

.75 

60 

.13 

27 

.49 

8 

.80 

60 

.82 

27 

.65 





























264 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 


Circumferences of Circles from 0.01 to 80.9 
Advancing by IOths. 


4 


B 

.S 

P 

.0 

.1 

.2 

.3 

.4 

.5 

.6 

.7 

.8 

.9 

Diam. 

0 

.00 

.31 

.62 

.94 

1.25 

1.57 

1.88 

2.19 

2.51 

2.82 

0 

1 

3.14 

3.45 

3.77 

4.08 

4.39 

4.71 

5.02 

5.34 

5.65 

5.96 

1 

2 

6.28 

6.59 

6.91 

7.22 

7.53 

7.85 

8.16 

8.48 

8.79 

9.11 

2 

3 

9.42 

9.74 

10.05 

10.36 

10.68 

10.99 

11.30 

11.62 

11.93 

12.25 

3 

4 

12.56 

12.88 

13.19 

13.50 

13.82 

14.13 

14.45 

14.76 

15.08 

15.39 

4 

5 

15.70 

16.02 

16.33 

16.65 

16.96 

17.27 

17.59 

17.90 

18.22 

18.53 

5 

6 

18.84 

19.16 

19.47 

19.79 

20.10 

20.42 

20.73 

21.04 

21.36 

21.67 

6 

7 

21.99 

22.30 

22.61 

22.93 

23.24 

23.56 

23.87 

24.19 

24.50 

24.81 

7 

8 

25.13 

25.44 

25.76 

26.07 

26.38 

26.70 

27.01 

27.33 

27.64 

27.96 

8 

9 

28.27 

28.58 

28.90 

29.21 

29.53 

29.34 

30.15 

30.47 

30.78 

31.10 

9 

10 

31.41 

31.73 

32.04 

32.35 

32.67 

32.98 

33.30 

33.61 

33.92 

34.24 

10 

11 

34.55 

34.87 

35.18 

35.50 

35.81 

36.12 

36.44 

36.75 

37.07 

37.38 

11 

12 

37.69 

38.01 38.32 

38.64 

38.95 

39.27 

39.58 

39.89 

40.21 

40.52 

12 

13 

40.84 

41.15 41.46 

41.78 

42.09 

42.41 

42.72 

43.03 

43.35 

43.66 

13 

14 

43.98 

44.29 

44.61 

44.92 

45.23 

45.55 

45.86 

46.18 

46.49 

46.80 

14 

15 

47.12 

47.43 

47.75 

48.06 

48.38 

48.69 

49.00 

49.32 

49.63 

49.95 

15 

16 

50.26 

50.57 

50.89 

51.20 

51.52 

51.83 

52.15 

52.46 

52.78 

53.09 

16 

17 

53.40 

53.72 

54.03 

54.35 

54.65 

54.97 

55.29 

55.60 

55.92 

56.23 

17 

18 

56.54 

56.86 

57.17 

57.49 

57. SO 

58.11 

58.43 

58.74 

59.06 

59.37 

18 

19 

59.69 

60.00 

60.31 

60.63 

60.94 

61.26 

61.57 

61.88 

62.20 

62.51 

19 

20 

62.83 

63.14 

63.46 

63.77 

64.08 

64.40 

64.71 

65.03 

65.34 

65.65 

20 

12 

65.97 

66.28 

66.60 

66.91 

67.22 

67.54 

67.85 

68.17 

68.48 

68.80 

21 

22 

69.11 

69.42 

69.74 

70.05 

70.37 

70.68 

71.00 

71.31 

71.62 

71.94 

22 

23 

72.25 

72.57 

72.88 

73.19 

73.51 

73.82 

74.14 

74.45 

74.76 

75.08 

23 

24 

75.39 

75.71 

76.02 

76.34 

76.65 

76.96 

77.28 

77.59 

77.91 

78.22 

24 

25 

78.54 

78.85 

79.16 

79.48 

79.79 

80.11 

80.42 

80.73 

81.05 

81.36 

25 

26 

81.68 

81.99 

82.30 

82.62 

82.93 

83.25 

83.56 

83.88 

84.19 

84.50 

26 

27 

84.82 

85.13 

85.45 

85.76 

86.07 

86.39 

86.70 

87.02 

87.33 

87.65 

27 

28 

87.96 

88.27 

88.59 

88.90 

89.22 

89.53 

89.84 

90.16 

90.47 

90.79 

28 

29 

91.10 

91.42 

91.73 

92.04 

92.36 

92.67 

92.99 

93.30 

93.61 

93.93 

29 

30 

94.24 

94.56 

94.87 

95.19 

95.50 

95.81 

96.13 

96.44 

96.76 

97.07 

30 

31 

97.38 

97.70 

98.01 

98.33 

98.64 

98.96 

99.27 

99.58 

99.90 

100.2 

31 

32 

100.5 

100.8 

101 1 

101.4 

101.7 

102.1 

102.4 

102.7 

103.0 

103.3 

32 

33 

103.6 

103.9 

104.3 

104.6 

104.9 

105.2 

105.5 

105.8 

106.1 

106.5 

33 

34 

106.8 

107.1 

107.4 

107.7 

108.0 

108.3 

108.0 

109.0 

109.3 

109.6 

34 

35 

109.9 

110.2 

110.5 

110.8 

111.2 

111.5 

111.8 

112.1 

112.4 

112.7 

35 

36 

113.0 

113.4 

113.7 

114.0 

114.3 

114.6 

114.9 

115.2 

115.6 

115.9 

36 

37 

116.2 

116.5 

116.8 

117.1 

117.4 

117.8 

118.1 

118.4 

118.7 

119.0 

37 

38 

119.3 

119.6 

120.0 

120.3 

120.6 

120.9 

121.2 

121.5 

121.8 

122.2 

38 

39 

122.5 

122.8 

123.1 

123.4 

. 123.7 

124.0 

124.4 

124.7 

125.0 

125.3 

39 

40 

125.6 

125.9 

126.2 

126.6 

126.9 

127.2 

127.5 

127.8 

128.1 

128.4 

40 

41 

128.8 

129.1 

129.4 

129.7 

130.0 

130.3 

130.6 

131.0 

131.3 

131.6 

41 

42 

131.9 

132.2 

132.5 

132.8 

133.2 

133.5 

133.8 

134.1 

134.4 

134.7 

42 

43 

135.0 135.4 

135.7 

136.0 

136.3 

136.6 

136.9 

137.2 

137.6 

137.9 

43 

44 

138.2 138.5 

138.8 

139.1 

139.4 

139.8 

140.1 

140.4 

140.7 

141.0 

44 

45 

141.3 141.6 

1 

142.0 

142.3 

142.6 

142.9 

143.2 

143.5 

143.9 

144.2 

45 






































GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 26 ^ 


Circumferences of Circles— Continued. 


Diam . 

.0 

.1 

.2 

.3 

.4 

.5 

.6 

.7 

.8 

.9 

Diam . 

46 

144.5 

144.8 

145.1 

145.4 

145.7 

146.0 

146.3 

146.7 

147.0 

147.3 

46 

47 

147.6 

147.9 

148.3 

148.6 

148.9 

149.2 

149.5 

149.8 

150.1 

150.4 

47 

48 

150.7 

151.1 

151.4 

151.7 

152.0 

152.3 

152.6 

152.9 

153.3 

153.6 

48 

49 

153.9 

154.2 

154.5 

154.8 

155.1 

155.5 

155.8 

156.1 

156.4 

156.7 

49 

50 

157.0 

157.3 

157.7 

158.0 

158.3 

158.6 

158.9 

159.2 

159.5 

159.9 

50 

51 

160.2 

160.5 

160.8 

161.1 

161.4 

161.7 

162.1 

162.4 

162.7 

163.0 

51 

52 

163.3 

163.6 

163.9 

164.3 

164.6 

164.9 

165.2 

165.5 

165.8 

166.1 

52 

53 

166.5 

166.8 

167.1 

167.4 

167.7 

168.0 

168.3 

168.7 

169.0 

169.3 

53 

54 

169.6 

169.9 

170.2 

170.5 

170.9 

171.2 

171.5 

171.8 

172.1 

172.4 

54 

55 

172.7 

173.1 

173.4 

173.7 

174.0 

174.3 

174.6 

174.9 

175.3 

175.6 

55 

56 

175.9 

176.2 

176.5 

176.8 

177.1 

177.5 

177.8 

178.1 

178.4 

178.7 

56 

57 

179.0 

179.3 

179.9 

180.0 

180.3 

180.6 

ISO . 9 

181.2 

181.5 

181.9 

57 

58 

182.2 

182.5 

182.8 

183.1 

183.4 

183.7 

184.0 

184.4 

184.7 

185.0 

58 

59 

185.3 

185.6 

185.9 

186.2 

186.6 

186.9 

187.2 

187.5 

187.8 

188.1 

59 

60 

188.4 

188.8 

189.1 

189.4 

189.7 

190.0 

190.3 

190.6 

191.0 

191.3 

60 

61 

191.6 

191.9 

192.2 

192.5 

192.8 

193.2 

193.5 

193.8 

194.1 

194.4 

61 

62 

194.7 

195.0 

195.4 

195.7 

196.0 

196.3 

196.6 

196.9 

197.2 

197.6 

62 

63 

197.9 

198.2 

198.5 

198.8 

199.1 

199.4 

199.8 

200.1 

200.4 

200.7 

63 

64 

201.0 

201.3 

201.6 

202.0 

202.3 

202.6 

202.9 

203.2 

203.5 

203.8 

64 

65 

204.2 

204.5 

204.8 

205.1 

205.4 

205.7 

206.0 

206.4 

206.7 

207.0 

65 

66 

207.3 

207.6 

207.9 

208.2 

208.6 

208.9 

209.2 

209.5 

209.8 

210.1 

66 

67 

210.4 

210.8 

211.1 

211.4 

211.7 

212.0 

212.3 

212.6 

213.0 

213.3 

67 

68 

213.6 

213.9 

214.2 

214.5 

214.8 

215.1 

215.5 

215.8 

216.1 

216.4 

68 

69 

216.7 

217.0 

217.3 

217.7 

218.0 

218.3 

218.6 

218.9 

219.2 

219.5 

69 

70 

219.9 

220.2 

220.5 

220.8 

221.1 

221.4 

221.7 

222.1 

222.4 

222.7 

70 

71 

223.0 

223.3 

223.6 

223.9 

224.3 

224.6 

224.9 

225.2 

225.5 

225.8 

71 

72 

226.1 

226.5 

226.8 

227.1 

227.4 

227.7 

228.0 

228.3 

228.7 

229.0 

72 

73 

229.3 

229.6 

229.9 

230.2 

230.5 

230.9 

231.2 

231.5 

231.8 

232.1 

73 

74 

232.4 

232.7 

233.1 

233.4 

233.7 

234.0 

234.3 

234.6 

234.9 

235.3 

74 

75 

235.6 

235.9 

236.2 

236.5 

236.8 

237.1 

237.5 

237.8 

238.1 

238.4 

75 

76 

238.7 

239.0 

239.3 

239.7 

240.0 

240.3 

240.6 

240.9 

241.2 

242.5 

76 

77 

241.9 242.2 

242.5 

242.8 

243.1 

243.4 

243.7 

244.1 

244.4 

244.7 

77 

78 

245.0 245.3 

245.6 

245.9 

246.3 

246.6 

246.9 

247.2 

247.5 

247.8 

78 

79 

248.1 248.5 

248.8 

249.1 

249.4 

249.7 

250.0 

250.3 

25 C .6 

251.0 

79 

80 

251.3 251.6 

1 

251.9 

252.2 

252.5 

252.8 

253.2 

253.5 

253.8 

1 

254.1 

80 


Mensuration of Surface and Volume. The 

area of a rectangle is equal to the length X 
breadth. 

Area of a triangle is equal to the base X one- 
naif the perpendicular height. 

Diameter of a circle is equal to the radius X 2 . 










































266 GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND-BOOK 

Circumference of a circle is equal to the diam¬ 
eter X 3.1416. 

Area of a circle is equal to the square of 
diameter X .7854. 

Area of a sector of a circle is equal to the area 
of the circle X number of degrees in arc ~ 360. 

Area of surface of a cylinder is equal to the 
circumference X length, plus the area of both 
ends. 

To find the diameter of a circle having a given 
area: Divide the area by .7854, and extract the 
square root. 

To find the volume of a cylinder: Multiply 
the area of the section in square inches by the 
length in inches, this equals the volume in cubic 
inches. Cubic inches divided by 1728 is equal to 
the volume in cubic feet of any body. 

The surface of a sphere is equal to the square 

of diameter X 3.1416. 

Volume of a sphere is equal to the cube of 
diameter X .5236. 

The side of an inscribed cube is equal to the 

radius of the sphere X 1.1547. 

The area of the base of a pyramid or cone, 
whether round, square or triangular, multiplied 
by one-third of its height is equal to the volume. 

A gallon of water (United States Standard) 
weighs 83 pounds and contains 231 cubic inches, 


INDEX 


Page 


Actual horsepower . 7 

Adjustment . 7 

—Carburetor . 23 

Anti-freezing solutions. 8 

Backfiring . 9 

Batteries, Dry. 82 

—Testing .138 

Bearings . 9 

—Heated . 12 

—Thrust . 254 

Boat engine, Selecting a... 248 
Calorific values of fuels... 12 

Cams . 13 

Cam shaft gearing. 14 

Carburetor adjustment .... 23 

—Nozzle . 24 

Carburetors, Float-feed ... 16 

Care of gas or oil engines, 

Directions for . 26 

Cleaning a gas or oil engine 27 

Coil, Primary-spark.193 

—Secondary . 204 

Combustion Chamber, Design 

of . 28 

—Dimensions of . 28 

Comparisons of gas and 

steam engines ...... 30 


Comparison of horizontal 

and vertical engines. 31 
Comparison of two and four¬ 


cycle gas engines.... 32 
Compressed air starters.... 33 

Compression .. 35 

—Advantages of . 36 

—How to calculate.... 36 
—How to test for leaks 

in . 38 

—Loss of . 39 

Connecting-rods . 44 

Cooling of cylinder. 40 

Cooling systems . 40 

Couplings and thrust bear¬ 
ings . 254 

Crank shafts . 44 

Crude oil vaporizer....182 

Cycles of gas and oil en¬ 
gines . 45 

Cylinder, Cooling the. 40 

—Method of boring a... 48 

—sweating . 49 

Cylinders, Construction of. 47 
Deep well pump plants.... 60 
De La Vergne crude oil en- 


Page 


Design, Gas engine.255 

Design of gas and oil en¬ 
gines . 62 

Diesel engine . 63 

Dry batteries . 82 

Dynamometer . 83 

Efficiency, Thermal . 84 

—Mechanical . 83 

Electricity, Forms of. 85 

Electric light outfits. 85 

Engine efficiency . 117 

Engines, Gas and steam, 

compared . 30 

—Horizontal and verti¬ 
cal comparisons. 31 

—Two and four-cycle 
gas, comparisons of.. 32 
Exhaust valve, leaky...... 91 

Explosions in the inlet-pipe 91 

—Weak . 92 

Fire insurance . 92 

Fire pot or muffler. 92 

Flash test of oils.. 94 

Float-feed carburetors .... 16 

Flywheels . 95 

—Loose .238 

Foundation bolts . 96 

Foundations . 97 

Four-cycle engine, Construc¬ 
tion of . 97 

—Operation of. 98 

—Principle of .100 

Four-cycle marine engines. 102 

Friction clutches . 102 

Fuel consumption of gas 

and oil engines.104 

Fuel gas oil. 105 

Fuels, Calorific heat values 

of . 12 

Gas and oil engines, Fuel 

consumption of .104 

Gas bag . 105 

Gas engine design.255 

Gas engine troubles.232 

Gases, Expansion of.106 

Gasoline or kerosene fires.. 107 
Gasoline, How obtained... 106 

—pipes .. 242 

—traction engines .... 119 
Gas or oil engines, Success¬ 
ful operation of.120 

Gas, Producer . 108 

Gearing, Cam shaft. 14 

207 








































































268 


INDEX 


Page 


Generator . 121 

Governing gas or oil engines 121 

Hand starting device.125 

Hornsby-Akroyd oil engine. 126 

Horsepower, Actual . 7 

—of gas or oil engines. 128 

Hot tube ignition. 131 

Hydrogen content . 118 

Ignition by compression.... 149 

—Catalytic . 132 

—Causes of premature. 193 

—dynamo . 139 

—Forms of . 132 

—Hot tube . 131 

—Jump-spark system of 135 
—Make-and-break sys¬ 
tem of . 135 

—mechanism . 134 

—Reason for advancing 

point of . 151 

Igniter, Cleaning an.132 

Indicator diagrams .151 

—Use of the. 154 

Inspecting gas or oil en¬ 
gines . 155 

Installing a gas or oil en¬ 
gine . 155 

Jump-spark wiring diagram 157 
Knocking or pounding in an 

engine . 157 

Lauson heavy-duty kerosene 

engine . 161 

Loose flywheel . 238 

Lubricants . 167 

Lubrication, Over or im¬ 
proper . 169 

—of oil engine cylinders 168 

Lubricators . 170 

Magnetos . 143 

Magneto Armature . 143 

Marine engine with reverse 

lever, Handling.251 

Mensuration of surface and 

volume .. 265 

Misfiring, Causes of. 171 

Mixing valve . 172 

Motor boats, Propellers for 251 

Muffler . 92 

Multiple-cylinder engines... 246 
Nordberg high compression 

oil engine . 173 

Nozzle, Carburetor . 24 

Oil engine cycle. 180 

—Hornsby-Akroyd .... 126 

—Remington. 213 

—Portable . 191 

Oiling a gas engine. 233 

Oils, Flash test of. 94 

—Viscosity of . 227 

Oil vaporization, Methods of 181 

Oil vaporizer, Crude. 182 

Oil vaporizers . 183 


Page 


Overheating, Causes of.184 

Piston displacement. 186 

—velocity . 189 

Piston-rings . 187 

Method of turning. 187 

Pistons . 185 

—Length of . 186 

Portable oil engines. 191 

Pounding in an engine. 157 

Premature ignition, Causes 

of . 193 

Pressure leaks . 239 

Primary-spark coil . 193 

Primary-spark plug . 194 

Producer capacity. 117 

—efficiency . 117 

Producer, Gas .13, 108 

Producer, Induced down- 

draft . 115 

—regulation . 118 

—The steam pressure.. 114 

Prony brake . 195 

Propellers for motor boats. 251 

Pump, Gasoline . 118 

Pump plants, Deep well.... 60 

Pumps . 240 

Regrinding valves. 242 

Remington oil engine. 197 

Repairing a gas or oil en¬ 
gine . 203 

Restricted exhaust or inlet 

ports . 243 

Secondary coil .. 204 

Selecting a boat engine.... 248 
Smoke from cylinder, Cause 

of . 206 

Solders and spelters.206 

Spark, Timing the.237 

Spelters . 206 

Starting a gas engine. 206 

Starting a gasoline engine. 207 
Starting a gasoline or kero¬ 
sene engine for the 

first time . 208 

Starting a gas or oil engine, 

General directions for 208 
Starting a kerosene engine. 210 
Starting oil engines, New 

method of .211 

Starting troubles. 212 

Stopping a gas or oil engine 213 

Stopping troubles .214 

Tachometer . 214 

Tanks, Capacity of cylin¬ 
drical . 214 

—Installation of gaso¬ 
line . 214 

Testing batteries . 138 

—the coil . 136 

Thermal efficiency . 84 

Throttle, Use of. 216 

Timing the spark. 237 





















































































/ 


INDEX 


269 


Page 

Page 

Two-cycle engine, Construe- 


—Diameter and lift of. 

222 

tion of . 

216 

—regrinding . 

242 

—Principle of . 

218 

—Timing of . T 

225 

Two-cycle marine engine... 

219 

—Vaporizing . 

241 

Types of gasoline engines.. 

245 

Viscosity of oils. 

227 

Valve lifters . 

224 

Water cooling system. 

227 

—Mixing . 

172 

Water-jacket circulation... 

28C 

—operating mechanism. 

224 

—Draining tie ....... 

231 

—stems. Fit of. 

225 

—temperature ........ 

239 

Valves . 

220 

—Testing of.. „ „. . 

81 

—and valve-chambers.. 

221 

Water-Jackets 

229 


TABLES 


Density and specific gravity 


Weight per cubic foot of 


equivalents . 

257 

substances ... 

260 

Dimensions of machine 


Squares and square roots of 


screws . 

258 

numbers from 1 to 100... 

2 1 

Safe working load of steel 


Areas and circumferences * 


balls . 

258 

circles from 0.05 to O,o0, 


Composition of alloys. 

258 

advancing by 1/20 of e 


Strength and weight of ma- 


inch ... 

262 

terials . 

259 

Circumferences of circles 


Dimensions of involute tooth 


from 0.01 to 80.9 advanc- 


spur gears . 

259 

ing by lOtlis. 

264 

Melting point of metals.... 

2* 0 































FARM TRACTORS 


I 








CONTENTS. 


Page 


Part I . 7 

I. The Gasoline Farm Tractor. 7 

II. Fuel Consumption of Gas Engines. 17 

III. Alcohol as Fuel. 24 

IV. Kerosene as Fuel for Traction Engines. 40 

V. Balancing of Engines. 43 

VI. Piston Rings . 48 

VII. Valves . 52 

VIII. Leaky Pistons . 60 

IX. The Cylinder. 63 

X. The Carbureter or Mixer. 66 

XI. Modern Ignition . 93 

XII. Vaporizing of Fuel.126 

XIII. Cooling Systems .135 

XIV. Lubrication .143 

XV. Horse Power Calculations.149 

XVI. Gasoline Engine Troubles.153 

XVII. Types of Gasoline and Oil Farm Tractors... .161 

Bates All Steel Tractor.161 

Avery Gas and Oil Tractors.165 

Twin City Farm Tractor.179 

Sawyer-Massey Gasoline Tractor.188 

Minneapolis Farm Motor.198 

Aultman-Taylor Gas Tractor.202 

Caterpillar Tractor.214 

Case Gas-Oil Tractors.242 

International Harvester Kerosene Tractors.265 

Rumely Farm Tractors.283 

Advance-Rumely Tractors.299 

Part II .309 

I. Water Supply Systems in the Farm Home.311 

II. Electric Light for Farm Homes.331 

































TRACTION FARMING AND 
TRACTION ENGINEERING 


PART I 


CHAPTER I. 

THE GASOLINE FARM TRACTOR. 

THE gasoline motor, adapted as it is to the use of fuel 
in the form of gasoline, kerosene and alcohol, furnishes 
a source of power for both traction and stationary pur¬ 
poses that is at once economical, clean and safe, and is 
able to develop power from a fuel, the supply of which 
is practically inexhaustible. The use of the gasoline mo¬ 
tor has become so general that we find it in use every¬ 
where, and practically for all purposes where power is 

needed. 

One of the most hopeful signs, and one which presages 
future prosperity, is the rapidly increasing use of gaso¬ 
line traction 'engines on the farm. Mechanical power 
applied to the heavy work on the farm enables larger 
areas to be handled, and as a consequence the production 
is increased accordingly. Because the farmer is aided by 
mechanical power to make the earth yield more abun¬ 
dantly the city dweller is able to obtain the necessaries 
of life at a less cost than would be the case if all labor 

was done by hand. , . . 

The farm tractor is rapidly becoming the horse that 

will do all the hard work. It plows and prepares tb* 


/ • 


7 




■8 


TRACTION FARMING 


ground for seeding, it harvests the corn and grain, shells, 
threshes, separates and cleans the crops for market. It 
shreds the cornstalks for silage and fodder and helps 
in building country roads. 

The average weight of a gasoline or oil traction en¬ 
gine should be from five to ten tons. Such a machine as 
this should develop from fifteen to forty horse power and 
be relied on at all times to perform the hard work usu¬ 
ally performed by the horse. 

A good gasoline traction engine while hauling a gang 
of eight plows can easily turn over in a day from twenty 
to twenty-five acres. When smaller plows are required 
the disc may be used to good advantage as it rolls over 
stones or other obstructions that are sometimes encount¬ 
ered, and which might cause trouble for a mould board 
plow. 

One of the successful practices on the farms of the 
west is to hitch a harvester and binder to the traction 
engine. Vast fields of grain are thus handled to advan¬ 
tage and at a less expense than by the use of horses. 

The gasoline engine is taking the place of the uncer¬ 
tain wind mill. It is used to operate the churn, it saws 
wood, operates the corn cutter, and in a large number 
of cases it is used to generate electricity for the farm 
home and out-buildings. It also plows, drags, harrows, 
harvests, threshes and pulls heavy loads over country 
roads. In fact this engine is a man-of-all work. 

By the aid of the engine the farmer may have a better 
water supply than his city relatives. For instance, an 
elevated storage tank will give gravity pressure for fau¬ 
cets or hydrants all over the farm, and the pneumatic 
tank, underground, gives both pressure and insurance 
against freezing. In the latter the engine may be used 


THE GASOLINE FARM TRACTOR 9 

to pump either air or water into the tank up to a pres¬ 
sure of from 15 to 75 pounds per square inch. It is 
now possible, by means of an engine, a compressed air 
tank and a submerged pump, to have abundant water di¬ 
rect from the well by simply turning a cock in the kitchen. 
The pump, located at least six feet under the water, may 
be started by turning the faucet, the air supplying power 
for operating the pump. A surprisingly large percentage 
of farm houses are being equipped with modern sanitary 
conveniences which contribute to the health and comfort 
of the family. 

The gasoline engine has solved the problem of irriga¬ 
tion in many square miles of semi-arid territory where 
large projects are not possible or have been delayed. Wa¬ 
ter can often be found at a shallow depth in dry runs 
or by boring. A five horse power engine will raise 500 
gallons per minute from a depth of twenty feet. 

One of the most exhaustive chores in connection with 
the harvesting of the corn crop is shoveling off the load 
after a day of ten or twelve hours in the field. Now a 
two-horse-power gasoline engine, attached to a portable 
elevator, will empty a thirty-bushel load of ear corn into 
a car, corn crib or granary in from three to six minutes. 
The same is true to some extent of the small grain crops. 
Quite often both elevator and engine are mounted on the 
same truck, and in connection with the large threshing 
outfits this combination saves labor that is hard to get 
just at that time. The wagon is driven into position, 
the front wheels elevated and the rear end gate removed. 
The grain falls into the hopper, is elevated by an endless 
conveyor and delivered by a flexible spout at heights 
practically impossible by hand. The engine has there¬ 
fore made it possible to build granaries and corn cribs 





10 


TRACTION FARMING 


higher, at a considerable saving in initial expense per 
unit of storage space. 

But simple and useful as this wonderful motor is, a 
certain amount of skill and care is required in order to 
obtain satisfactory results from its operation, and it is 
for the purpose of supplying the necessary information 
and rules for the guidance of the operators of these mo¬ 
tors that the following pages have been written. 

Principles of Action .—One of the greatest aids to th(' 
successful management of a gas engine is a thorough un¬ 
derstanding of the principles controlling its action, and 
the nature of the fuel used in the cylinder for generat¬ 
ing the power. Various methods are employed in the 
production of this explosive, power producing gas. First, 
there is natural gas, generated in the bosom of the earth; 
second, artificial gas, manufactured from coal and other 
substances by means of a gas producer; and third, the 
generation of the gas within the cylinder of the engine, 
by passing small quantities of the liquid fuel, gasoline, 
keiosene or alcohol, through a device called a mixer or 
carbureter, which is attached to the cylinder. The only 
difference between a gas engine proper and a gasoline 
or oil engine is, that in a gas engine, the gas is supplied 
to the cylinder by a gas producer, while in the gasoline 
engine the gas is generated within the cylinder from a 
charge of gasoline and exploded at the beginning of 
each power stroke. An engine using gas may be easily 
changed to use gasoline, or a gasoline engine may, by a 

few simple changes, be fitted to use natural or artificial 
gas. , | 

The gas engine is a prime mover which derives its 
power or energy from the heat generated by the combus¬ 
tion within its cylinder, of a mixture of gas and air in 





THE GASOLINE FARM TRACTOR 11 

i 

the proper proportion to form an explosive, i'he com¬ 
bustion of this charge of gas and air is occasioned under 
a close or heavy compression, a result of the inward 
movement of the piston after the charge is admitted and 
all valves closed. The result of igniting this mixture 
under the heavy compression is an explosion, which is 
nothing more than a quick burning or rapid combustion 
of the mixture. This sudden explosion causes a high 
degree of heat within the cylinder behind the piston, and, 
the resultant high initial pressure against the piston drives 



it forward, and, through the medium of connecting rod 
and crank, motion is imparted to the main engine shaft. 
Four-Cycle Engine .—The original gas engines, and a 































12 


TRACTION FARMING 


majority of the smaller sizes of today, operate upon the 
Beau de Rochas cycle, or four-stroke cycle, sometimes 
termed the Otto cycle, meaning that an engine completes 
a cycle in four acts, defined as follows: 

(1) Induction .—During an outstroke of the piston, see 
Figure 1, air and gas in suitable proportions are drawn 
into the cylinder. (2) Compression .—The following in¬ 
stroke, see Figure 2, compresses the combustible mixture 
into the clearance space. (3) Explosion .—Ignition of 


A 6 A B 



the compressed charge causes a rapid rise of pressure 
and subsequent expansion of products, see Figure 3. (4) 
Expulsion .—The expanded gases are expelled by the re¬ 
turning piston, see Figure 4. In this type of gas engine, 
























THE GASOLINE FARM TRACTOR 


13 


two revolutions of the crankshaft are necessary in or- 
<ier to complete one cycle. 

Two-Cycle Engine .—Many small engines and some of 
those of largest power are designed upon the two-stroke 
cycle, which is as follows: (1) Compression of the 
charge. (2) Ignition, explosion and expansion, and at 
the end of the stroke the exhaust products are expelled 



Vertical Cross-Section, Showing the Construction of a Two- 
Cycle Gas or Gasoline Engine. 

and the cylinder filled by a mixture of gas and air under 
pressure. In the two-cycle engine, two compression 
chambers are necessary, due to the fact that in this type 























14 


TRACTION FARMING 


of gas engine consisting of two cylinders, either side by 
side, or tandem, the charge of gas and air is being re¬ 
ceived in one cylinder, while the previous charge in the 
other cylinder is being compressed, preparatory to ex¬ 
plosion. A two-cycle engine thus explodes a charge, and 
receives an impulse at each revolution. It is important 
to admit only pure air and gas into engine cylinders. 
Dust and grit or tarry matters cause rapid wear of in¬ 
terior surfaces. Care is also necessary to insure the 
induction of cold charges, in order that maximum dens- 
ity of gas and air may be obtained. 

Figure 5 shows a vertical cross-section of a two-cycle 
type of marine engine. C is the crank chamber. It has 
two feet, or lugs, D as shown in the drawing, for the 
purpose of attaching it in its postion. There is an 
opening at A for the reception of the mixing-valve. The 
flywheel F, crankshaft G, connecting-rod H, piston P, 
inlet-port B, baffle-plate J and exhaust-opening E, are 
plainly shown in the drawing. 

To the top of the piston P is attached a cone-pointed 
projection K. This is on the right hand side and is 
placed there to break the electrical circuit between the 
contact points of the igniter. This is effected by the 
cone-point K striking the right hand end of the lever L, 
which causes the lever to rise at that end and fall at 
the other, thus breaking the contact between it and the 
insulated igniter terminal M. This breakage of the cir¬ 
cuit causes a spark to occur between the left hand end 
of the lever L and the point with which it was, a moment 
efore, in contact. This action takes place once in each 
revolution of the motor and just before the piston reaches 
the end of its upward stroke. 

The ignition may be retarded or advanced by raising or 


THE GASOLINE FARM TRACTOR 


15 


lowering the fulcrum of the lever L, by means of the 
' eccentric shown. 

The upper part of the cylinder is incased by a water 
jacket W, as is the cylinder head or cover N. 

Figure 6 gives two diagrammatic views of the opera- 
tion of a two-cycle gas or oil engine. It shows an inlet 
valve A, port or passage B, crankcase C, exhaust-open- 
ing E, and piston P. When the piston has reached the 
position shown in Diagram 1, it has forced a charge of 
the explosive mixture from the crankcase through the 
port or passage into the cylinder. The piston then moves- 



Two-Cycle Motor Diagrams, Showing the Various Op¬ 
erations During the Cycles. 


to the position shown in Diagram 2, and while doing so,, 
closes the port or passage and the exhaust opening, the 
compressed charge is then ignited, an explosion occurs 
and the piston is forced out to the position shown in 
Diagram 1. 

The admission of the new charge of explosive mixture 























16 


TRACTION FARMING 


to the crankcase is controlled by the action of the piston. 
As the latter travels away from the crankcase, it has a 
tendency to create a partial vacuum in the latter. This 
operation draws the inlet-valve inward and admits the 
new charge. 

The baffle-plate shown on the head of the piston di¬ 
rects the new charge from the crankcase towards the 
combustion chamber end of the cylinder, providing as 
nearly as possible a pure charge of mixture and assisting 
in the expulsion of the burned gases left in the cylinder 
from the last explosion. 

As this type of engine draws in a charge of explosive 
mixture, compresses it, ignites it and discharges the 
products of combustion while the piston makes one com¬ 
plete travel backward and forward, it consequently has 
a working stroke or power impulse every revolution of 
the crankshaft. 


















CHAPTER II. 


FUEL CONSUMPTION OF GAS ENGINES. 

The fuel consumption, whether gas or gasoline, de¬ 
pends largely upon the favorable construction of all parts 
entering into the control and feed of the fuel supply to 
the engine, as well as upon the prompt and vigorous 
ignition of each charge, and the application of the en¬ 
ergy resulting from it. The degree of compression which 
is most favorable to the fuel used in economy and power 
development must be carefully maintained. 

The manufacturer may so construct his engines as to 
show a tolerably uniform result in the shop test in fuel 
consumption, yet, when the product of his plant is shipped 
into widely different parts of the country, where the 
climatic and other conditions are at variance with those 
under which the tests were made in the plant, a variable 
fuel consumption should be expected; in fact, is bound to 
be the result. 

Before making a specific guarantee the manufacturer 
should be in position to control the conditions above re¬ 
ferred to and the fuel used. The heat units of the fuel 
used determine also in a measure the quantity consumed. 
To show the inconsistency of undertaking to make a 
specific guarantee as to fuel consumption, it may be news 
to many to know that even the same engine under ex¬ 
actly the same environments and conditions and on the 


17 





18 


TRACTION FARMING 


same gas fuel may show a wide range of difference in 
quantity of fuel consumed in repeated tests. 

Fuel Tests. In sixteen tests made by Prof. Burstall 
at Birmingham, England, on the same engine, with il¬ 
luminating gas of the town, the engine did not show the 
same fuel consumption in any two of the sixteen tests. 

e uel consumed in the tests ranged from 20.3 to 35.1 
cu.ft. per horse power per hour. 

. When , the en & ine sh °wed 20.3 cu.ft. it was develop- 

'C- When ^ US6d 35a CU ' ft h developed only 
h.p. Consequently the heavier the load the lower 
was the fuel consumption compared with the work done 
f he speed of the engine no doubt contributed to the va¬ 
riation m fuel used. This was only 107 r.p.m. when the 
engine .showed the highest pow'er and the lowest ratio 
of fuel consumption. While at the minimum power point 

and maximum ratio of consumption the engine was mak- 
mg 155 r.p.m. 

Ordinarily it is the belief that the higher the speed the 
more power the engine develops, but this is not neces- 
sanly so, and may be exactly the reverse, as in this case. 

. These Birmingham tests show a variation in air vol¬ 
ume from 5.3 to 10.8 of air to one of gas. The besr 
results seem to have been obtained at 8.6 parts of at 
to one of gas. It is such an easy matter for an operate 
to change the ratio of the air and gas mixture, t£t 

^%il s :: ious obstade is ~ ed « 

is £ £!r g %ures are §iven by james h - Bea “ ie 

enZe 6 ?!/^ 1 "^ are k baSed on actual tes ts of a four-cycle 
g e, 7/ 4 in. bore by 11 m. stroke, rated at 11 h p at 

a normal speed of 290 r.p.m. The engine showed a 


19 


FUEL CONSUMPTION OF GAS ENGINES 

thermal efficiency of 24.8 per cent on test with a Proney 
brake. For example we will take the fuel consump¬ 
tion at .55 lbs., per h.p., per hour* which is near the 
figure actually gotten from the test. It may be said that 
the above engine was in perfect condition when tested, 
and the thermal efficiency shown by the test would sel¬ 
dom be equalled in every day practice. In the first place, 
the valves were perfectly tight, and there was no leakage 
past the piston. The compression at the time of the 
test was 70 lb. gauge. The engine itself was one of the 
best built today. The proportion of air and fuel was 
the culmination of several previous tests. In automo¬ 
bile and marine engines it would seldom be possible to 
get equal results for various obvious reasons. 

“For example, we will assume that the gasoline used 
contained 20,000 B.t.u. per lb., at the rate of .55 lb. 
of fuel per horse power hour; this gives us 11,000 
B.t.u. per horse power hour. Each gallon of gasoline 
contains 5.9 lbs., so the fuel consumption works out to a 
little less than one-tenth gallon per horse power hour. 
In other words, this engine could be operated for 10 
hours on a little under 10 gallons of gasoline. In the 
test mentioned, the fuel consumption actually amounted 
to 9.5 gallons for 10 hours; the brake load showing 
11.9 h.p. 

“To return to the amount of fuel used at each explo¬ 
sion, the engine ran at 290 r.p.m., which means 145 
power impulses per minute, provided every possible im¬ 
pulse was taken. As a matter of fact, the brake was so 
adjusted that the engine cut out 10 strokes per minute.* 

“In each cubic centimeter of gasoline, there are 50 
drops under ordinary conditions. There are 3,G24 C.C. 
in a gallon or 181,200 drops in a gallon of gasoline. At 




20 


TRACTION FARMING 


a fuel consumption of one-tenth gallon per horse power 
hour or one gallon per hour for the above engine, this 
gives us one-sixtieth of 181,200 drops, or 3,200 drops to 
each minute; 3,200 divided by 135 power strokes per 
minute, gives us a little over 23 drops per power stroke* 
It should be remembered that drops of gasoline are 2 l / 2 
times as small as drops of water and in comparing this 
with water, the figures should be divided by 2*4, which 
gives 9-f-. Results for any size cylinder may easily be 
deduced from the above figures. 

\\ hen it comes to gas, the question is very similar. 
A good gas engine will consume about 15 ft. of city 
gas per horse power hour. Take an engine of 10 h.p., 
at 250 r.p.m., on full load, taking 125 explosions per min¬ 
ute, thus we have a consumption of 10 times 15 or 150 
ft. of gas per hour. For each minute we will have 150 
divided by 60 equals 2>^ ft.; 2^ cu.ft. of gas are thus 
sufficient for 125 power strokes, or 2 y 2 divided by 125, 
which gives us one-fiftieth of a foot of gas per explosion. 
In the case of the above engine the cylinder is 7x10 in., 
having a displacement of 466 cu.in., including clearance. 
This means that in one minute this cylinder containing 
466 cu.in. must be filled with gas and air 125 times, or 
33 cu.ft. of explosive mixture is required each minute. 
Of this 33 ft., 2^2 ft. is gas and the remainder air. It 
might be said that in relation to the apparently small per¬ 
centage of gas to air, which is usually taken at 1 to 9, 
that on full load the cylinder is never entirely free from 
burned gases when the new charge enters; so the entire 
displacement of the cylinder is not taken up by mixture, 
hence the proportion of air to gas is not as large as in¬ 
dicated in the above results. To the operator who really 
takes an interest in this work, such calculations are of 

I 


FUEL CONSUMPTION OF GAS ENGINES 21 

very great interest. They are of value for the keeping 
of a close tab on fuel consumption, and consequently lead 
to economy. It is a very easy matter to test the fuel 
consumption of an engine. If gas is used, watching the 
meter with various settings of the air and fuel valves and 
keeping tab on the explosions per minute, gives a very 
good indication. If gasolne is used, the supply pipe may 
be disconnected and the connections made to a gradu¬ 
ated cylinder temporarily. Then by trying various ad¬ 
justments of the fuel and air valves, it is surprising what 
a saving may be made in the fuel used.” 

Grades of Gasoline and Fuel Oil .—Several years ago 
the gasoline in popular use ranged from 62 degrees to 
76 degrees Baume, the greater quantity used being from 
70 degrees to 74 degrees. The test has gradually de¬ 
clined at the rate of about 1 degree a year since then, 
and it is a safe prediction that the greater part of fuel 
gasoline sold in the next decade will run close to the 
lowest limit at which oil is still rated as gasoline, namely, 
62 degrees Baume. 

In the past the distillates just heavier than 62 degrees 
have been sold partly as such, partly in a mixture with 
lighter gasolines to make a heavier and poorer .product, 
and partly in a mixture with heavier kerosenes to make 
an oil with a lower flash point, hence less desirable for 
illuminating purposes. Until the development of oil en¬ 
gines capable of using both the heavier and intermediate 
oils efficiently, there was no established market for the 
oils, which were too volatile for safe use in illumination, 
and too heavy for successful carburetion in the existing 
types of gasoline engines. For fuel purposes, the divid¬ 
ing line between kerosene and gasoline is rapidly dis¬ 
appearing. Owing to the impossibility of supplying 





22 


TRACTION FARMING 


\ 


enough high grade gasoline to meet the demand, the 
giade is being lowered to include a larger and larger 
proportion of the heavy oils, which occur in greater 
abundance. 

> Even in the face of this expedient, the proportion of 
oils refined as kerosene and distillate is not only out¬ 
running gasoline eight or ten to one, but outrunning the 
demand for heavier oils in much greater degree. Eventu¬ 
ally kerosene also will run heavier, but oil as low as 35 
degrees Baume has been used successfully in a traction 
engine designed especially for the purpose of handling 
the heavy oils. The heavier the oil, the greater its heat 
value per gallon, and the problem which automobile and 
engine makers face is that of utilizing this heat. 

For the information of those who may not be familiar 
with the teims used to designate the various grades of 
oil, it may be said that the gravity test involves the use 
of an arbitrary Baume scale, graduated in reverse or¬ 
der from the specific gravity of liquids. The following 
table shows the quality in degrees Baume at 60 degrees 
Fahrenheit, the specific gravity as compared with water, 
and the weight in pounds per U. S. gallon: 


Fuel 

Gasoline . 

Baume Test 
Degrees 

Specific 

Gravity 

Wt., lbs. 
Per Gal. 

5.66 

5.85 

6.02 

6.53 

.6.58 

7.08 

Gasoline .... 


.0 i V 

Gasoline . 


• 4 U /V 

799 

Kerosene, 120° 
Kerosene, 150° 
Fuel Oil . 

“Water White” 49 
“Water White” 47.5 

• 4 /V /v 

.784 

.789 

.850 


Many of the automobiles now on the market will han¬ 
dle the lower grades of distillates without difficulty, ex¬ 
cept, perhaps, in starting. With the present types of 









23 


FUEL CONSUMPTION OF GAS ENGINES 

carbureters there will be, of course, more carbonization. 
To some extent this may be helped by feeding an ounce 
of wood alcohol into each cylinder at the end of a run, 
and allowing it to exert its solvent action over night. 

Much of the carbon will then be blown out at the next 
start. 

All signs point to the general necessity for vaporiza¬ 
tion of the heavier oils, and manufacturers are on the 
alert for anything promising results in this direction. 





CHAPTER III. 

ALCOHOL AS FUEL. 

The United States Geological Survey bulletin on 
“Commercial Deductions from Comparisons of Gasoline 
and Alcohol Tests on Internal Combustion Engines/’ 
compiled by Robert M. Strong, gives the results of tests 
which were conducted under the technical direction of 
R. H. Fernald, engineer in charge of the Producer Gas 
Section of the Technologic Branch at the fuel testing 
plant at Norfolk, Va., and in St. Louis, Mo. These tests 
were held to determine the relative economy and effi- 
ciency of gasoline compared with denatured alcohol. B) 
the use of alcohol engines suited to that class of fuel as 
much efficiency has been obtained, gallon for gallon, as 
with gasoline fuel. 

On this point, the bulletin states:' “By using alcohol 
in an alcohol engine with a high degree of compression 
(about 180 lbs. per square inch above atmospheric pres¬ 
sure-much higher than can be used for gasoline on ac¬ 
count of pre-ignition from the high temperature produced 
by compression) the fuel consumption rate in gallons 
per horse power hour can be reduced to practically the 
same as the rate of consumption of gasoline for a gaso¬ 
line engine of the same size and speed. The indications 
are that this possible 1 to 1 fuel consumption, ratio by 
volume, for gasoline and alcohol engines, will hold true 
for any size or speed, if the cylinder dimensions and rev¬ 
olutions per minute of the two engines are the same.” 


24 




ALCOHOL AS FUEL 


25 


Some of the more important results and conclusions 
stated in this bulletin are as follows: 

The low heating value of completely denatured alcohol 
will average 10,500 B.t.u. per pound, or 71,900 B.t.u. 
per gallon. 

The low heating value of 0.71 to 0.73 specific gravity 
gasoline will average 19,200 B.t.u. per pound, or 115,800 
B.t.u. per gallon. 

The low heating value of a pound of alcohol is approx¬ 
imately 0.6 the low heating value of a pound of gasoline. 
A pound of gasoline requires approximately twice as 
much weight of air for complete combustion as a pound 
of alcohol. 

A gasoline engine having a compression pressure of 
70 lbs., but otherwise as well suited to the economical 

! use of denatured alcohol as gasoline, will, when using 
alcohol, have an available horse power about 10 per cent 
greater than when using gasoline. 

When the fuels for which they are designed are used 
to equal advantage, the maximum available horse power 
of an alcohol engine having a compression pressure of 
180 lbs. is about 30 per cent greater than that of a 
gasoline engine having a compression pressure of 70 lbs., 
but of the same size in respect to cylinder diameter, 
stroke and speed. 

Alcohol diluted with water in any proportion, from 
denatured alcohol, which contains about 10 per cent of 
water, to mixtures containing about as much water as 
denatured alcohol, can be used in gasoline and alcohol 
engines if they are properly equipped and adjusted. 

When used in an engine having a constant degree of 
compression, the amount of pure alcohol required for 
any given load increases and the maximum available 







26 


TRACTION FARMING 


horse power of the engine decreases with a diminution 
in the percentage of pure alcohol in the diluted alcohol 
supplied. The rate of increase and decrease respectively 
is such, however, that the use of 80 per cent alcohol in¬ 
stead of 90 per cent, or denatured alcohol, has but little 
effect upon the performance of the engine; so that if 80 
per cent alcohol can be had for 15 per cent less cost than 
90 per cent alcohol and could be sold without tax when 
denatured, it would be more economical to use the 80 
per cent alcohol. 

In regard to general cleanliness, such as absence of 
smoke and disagreeable odors, alcohol has many advan¬ 
tages over gasoline or kerosene as a fuel. The exhaust 
from an alcohol engine is never clouded with a black or 
grayish smoke, as is the exhaust of a gasoline or kerosene 
engine when the combustion of the fuel is incomplete, 
and, it is seldom, if ever, clouded with a bluish smoke 
when a cylinder oil of too low a fire test is used or an 
excessive amount supplied, as is so often the case with 
a gasoline engine. The odors of denatured alcohol and 
the exhaust gases from an alcohol engine are also not 
likely to be as obnoxious as the odor of gasoline and its 
products of combustion. 

Denatured alcohol will, however, probably not be used 
for power purposes to any great extent until its price 
and the price of gasoline become equal and the equality 
of gasoline and alcohol engines in respect to ability for 
service required and quantity of fuel consumed per brake 
horse power, which has been demonstrated to be pos¬ 
sible, becomes more generally realized. 

A further general development in the design and con¬ 
struction of engines that use kerosene or cheaper distil¬ 
lates, and the crude petroleum may be reasonably ex- 


ALCOHOL AS FUEL 


71 

pected and may delay the extensive use of denatured al¬ 
cohol for some time to come, but as yet comparatively 
few data pertaining to this phase of the general investi¬ 
gation are available. 

The following conclusions regarding the use of alcohol 
as fuel for engines as compared with gasoline are based 
; upon the preliminary results of a series of experiments 
conducted by the U. S. Department of Agriculture: 

(1) Any engine on the American market today, oper¬ 
ating with gasoline or kerosene, can operate with alcohol 
fuel without any structural change whatever with proper 
manipulation. 

(2) Alcohol contains approximately .6 of the heating 
value of gasoline by weight, and in the Department’s 
experiments a small engine required 1.8 times as much 
alcohol as gasoline per hour. This corresponds closely 
with the relative heating value of the two fuels, indicat- 
ing practically the same thermal efficiency with the two 
when vaporization is complete. 

(3) In some cases carbureters designed for gasoline; 
do not vaporize all the alcohol supplied, and in such cases 
the excess of alcohol consumed is greater than that in¬ 
dicated above. 

(4) The absolute excess of alcohol consumed over 
gasoline or kerosene will be reduced by such changes as 
will increase the thermal efficiency of the engine. 

(5) The thermal efficiency of these engines can be im¬ 
proved when they are to be operated by alcohol, first, by 
altering the construction of the carbureter to accomplish 
complete vaporization, and second, by materially increas¬ 
ing the compression. 

(6) An engine designed for gasoline or kerosene can, 
without any material alterations to adapt it to alcohol,. 




28 


TRACTION! FARMING 


give slightly more power (about 10 per cent) than wher 
operated with gasoline or kerosene, but this increase is 
at the expense of greater consumption of fuel. By al¬ 
terations designed to adapt the engine to new fuel, this 
excess of power may be increased to about 20 per cent. 

(() Because of the increased output, without corres¬ 
ponding increase in size, alcohol engines should sell for 
less per horse power than gasoline or kerosene engines 
of the same class. 

t ( 8 ) The different designs of gasoline or kerosene en¬ 
gines are not equally well adapted to the burning of al¬ 
cohol, though all may burn it with a fair degree of 
success. 

(^) Storage of alcohol and its use in engines is much 
less dangerous than that of gasoline, as well as being 
decidedly more pleasant. 

(10) The exhaust from an alcohol engine is less likely 
to be offensive than the exhaust from a gasoline or kero¬ 
sene engine, although there will be some odor, due to 
lubricating oil and imperfect combustion, if the engine 
is not skillfully operated. 

(11) It requires no more skill to operate an alcohol 
engine than one intended for gasoline or kerosene. 

(12) There is no reason to suppose that the cost of 
repairs and lubrication will be any greater for an alcohol 
engine than for one built for gasoline or kerosene. 

(-b-*) There seems to be no tendency for the interior 
of an alcohol engine to become sooty, as is the case with 
gasoline and kerosene. 

(-^) With proper manipulation, there seems to be no 
undue corrosion of the interior due to the use of alcohol. 

(15) The fact that the exhaust from the alcohol en¬ 
gine is not as hot as that from gasoline and kerosene 


ALCOHOL AS FUEL 


29 


engines seems to indicate that there will be less danger 
from file, less offense in a room traversed by the ex- 
j haust pipe, and less possibility of burning the lubricat¬ 
ing oil. This latter point is also borne out by the fact 
that the exhaust shows less smokiness. 

(16) In localities where there is a supply of cheap raw 
material for the manufacture of denatured alcohol, and 
; which are at the same time remote from the source of 
supply of gasoline, alcohol may immediately compete 
with gasoline as a fuel for engines. 

I (17) If, as time goes on, kerosene and its distillates 
become scarcer and dearer by reason of exhaustion of 
natural deposits, the alcohol engine will become a 
stronger, and stronger competitor, with a possibility that 
m time it may entirely supplant the kerosene and gaso¬ 
line engines. 

(18) By reason of its greater safety and its adapta¬ 
bility to the work, alcohol should immediately supplant 
gasoline for use in boats. 

(19) By reason of cleanliness in handling the fuel, 
increased safety in fuel storage, and less offensiveness in 
the exhaust, alcohol engines will, in part, displace gaso¬ 
line engines for automobile work, but only when cost of 
fuel for operation is a subordinate consideration. In this 
field it is impossible to conveniently increase the com¬ 
pression because of starting difficulties, so that the effi¬ 
ciency can not be improved as conveniently as in other 
types of engines. 

(20) In most localities it is unlikely that alcohol power 
will be cheaper or as cheap as gasoline power for some 
time to come. 

Cost of Fuel .—The cost of operating the gasoline farm 
engine is a subject that is receiving not only the attention 





30 TRACTION FARMING 

f 

of the manufacturers of this type of engine but also of 
the different state agricultural colleges. 

The following is from the pen of Mr. F. R. Crane 
of the Illinois College of Agriculture, and throws con¬ 
siderable light on the subject. 

Mr. Crane says: “Considering the actual fuel used 
in the combustion engine while at work, there is more 
expense incurred than there would be in a steam engine 
of the same horse power doing the same work; but, for 
the farmer who wants a power only occasionally, and 
wants it quick and with small attention, the gas engine, 
which consumes fuel only when performing work, is 
far superior and less expensive than the steam engine 
plant, which consumes considerable fuel in getting ready 
for work, and which also requires the constant attention 
of the operator. The leading fuels used in the gas en¬ 
gines are alcohol, coal oil (kerosene) and gasoline. 

Alcohol can be used in the ordinary gasoline engine 
with a readjustment of the carbureter, allowing a dif¬ 
ferent proportion of air from that used with gasoline 
to mix with the alcohol as it passes into the cylinder. 
Alcohol leaves but little deposit within the cylinder, is 
free from any disagreeable odor, and there is little dan¬ 
ger from fire, but at present prices it is too expensive. 

'‘Kerosene is a very safe fuel, but full of impurities 
which cause foulness within the cylinder, although this 
can be cared for if attended to as the occasion for clean¬ 
ing arises. The present price of kerosene makes it 
much cheaper than gasoline. 

'‘It is well to say here that with both alcohol and kero¬ 
sene we ordinarily use gasoline to start the engine and 
warm it up to the point where the alcohol and kerosene 
will form a gas sufficient for running purposes. 


ALCOHOL AS FUEL 


31 


“Gasoline is the present recognized fuel which is sat¬ 
isfactory and economical. 

“As to the comparative costs of these three fuels, we 
find, from reliable data given out, that under average 
conditions about 1 pint of gasoline will produce one 
horse power per hour; 1.1 pints of kerosene will produce 
the same, and 1.4 pints of alcohol gives an equal horse 
power pel hour, or, in other words, one horse power per 
hour can be produced in a gas engine by using approxi¬ 
mately 1 pint of gasoline, 1.1 pints of kerosene, or 1.1 
pints of alcohol. 


Expressed in terms of money to produce an equal 
power from alcohol, kerosene or gasoline, and to have 
that power cost the same, using as a fuel any of the 
three named, the ratio of their cost per gallon will be ap¬ 
proximately as follows: If gasoline costs 14 cents per 
gallon, then alcohol must cost 10 cents per gallon, and 
kerosene 13 cents per gallon. It is a well known fact 
that under present manufacturing conditions alcohol must 
be sold for at least 30 cents per gallon. This being 
true, gasoline must go to 40 cents per gallon before pres¬ 
ent conditions will admit of the use of denatured al¬ 
cohol. 


“Experimental data brings kerosene within our reach. 
A few satisfactory oil engines are now offered to the 
trade, and the day is not far distant when the oil en¬ 
gine will be extensively used upon the farm.” 

Testing Alcohol as in a Gasoline Engine. —The fol¬ 
lowing is a report of a test made by Professor Charles 
E. Lucke of Columbia University, regarding the use of 
alcohol as compared with gasoline: 

The tests were made on engines intended for burning 



32 TRACTION* FARMING 

4 

either gasoline or kerosene. The dimensions of engine 
No. 1 were 5^-in. bore by 9-in. stroke and water-cooled. 
The compression as shown by indicator diagrams was 
73 lbs. per sq.in. 

The carbureter is shown in Figure 7. The gov¬ 
ernor is of the hit-and-miss type. The inlet valve is 
operated by suction and is not under the control of the 
cam at any time. The exhaust valve, however, is cam- 
operated by a lever. The action of the governor is as 
follows: When the speed gets too high, the governor 
prevents this valve from closing and at the same time 
a finger prevents the inlet valve from opening. This 
action results in a miss-stroke and during the miss-stroke 
the exhaust gases are drawn into, and expelled succes¬ 
sively from the cylinder, whereas in some types of gas 
engines during a miss-stroke, fresh air is drawn into 
and expelled from the cylinder. 

The caibureter is attached to the inlet opening, and 
is of the constant level overflow type, supplied by a 
pump. 

The fuel rises through the pipe marked “fuel sup¬ 
ply,” Figure 7, over the end of which is a baffle plate 
to pi event splashing and surging. Any excess returns to 
the pump section through the overflow pipe and a cover 
to the chamber permits the operator to observe the level. 
The pump is cam-operated ordinarily, but is so arranged 
that it may be operated by hand in starting. The spray 
orifice is controlled by a needle valve having a numbered 
head and pointer. This needle valve is arranged to seat on 
the spiay oiifice, which is about one-half inch above 
the overflow pipe. The suction of the engine draws air 
through the air-inlet pipe, past a damper or valve for 
the regulation of the vacuum in the carbureter, and 


ALCOHOL AS FUEL 











tidd*S i an J 


moujiAQ /inj 


















































































































































34 


TRACTION FARMING 


thence upward to the right-angle bend across which it 
meets the fuel spray and passes to the engine suction. 
In starting the engine the piston speed is so slow, as it is 
turned over by hand, as to make it difficult to obtain , a 
vacuum in the carbureter sufficient to lift the fuel the 
one-half inch between the overflow level and the spray 
orifice, and in addition spray it into the air. To make 
this easier, the damper or vacuum-regulating valve shown 
in cross-sections, is added. By closing it at the start, 
the vacuum may be increased and the fuel easily sprayed. 
All of the air used by the engine passes through the 
carbureter chamber and meets the spray at the orifice. 

Description of Tests .—It became clear during the tests 
on the engirte that an apparently insignificant change in 
the carbureter setting might possibly have a very large 
effect on the fuel consumption. It also became clear 
that the adjustment of the igniter and carbureter were 
matters of much greater importance in fuel economy than 
a considerable change in compression. To put it other¬ 
wise, increasing the compression of an engine using al¬ 
cohol fuel for the purpose of obtaining a gain in economy, 
might be entirely useless if the engine is unskillfully 
handled, but in spite of considerable care in determining 
the best adjustment, it is not always easy to determine 
when it has been reached. 

The operation of starting the engine was the same 
whether gasoline or alcohol was used as a fuel, and was 
no more difficult with one fuel than with the other after 
the proper fuel valve settings for each had been learned. 

Of the fifty-four consumption tests made with this en¬ 
gine, twenty-four were made with gasoline as fuel and 
thirty with alcohol. The results are thus summarized: 

Summary of Tests. —(1) With both alcohol and gaso- 


ALCOHOL AS FUEL 


35 


line fuel, from half load to full load, the best consump¬ 
tions were obtained with the smallest needle-valve set¬ 
tings which could be used with the respective fuels and 
loads. 

(2) With both alcohol and gasoline fuel, by opening 
the needle-valve the consumption could be increased to 
approximately twice the best consumption before the en¬ 
gine would be stopped by the excess of fuel. 

(3) With both alcohol and gasoline, the most rapid 
combustion, the highest mean effective pressure and the 
highest maximum pressure were obtained when the fuel 
used was considerably in excess of the best consumption. 

(4) With both alcohol and gasoline, the amount of 
fuel used with any given load was approximately pro¬ 
portional to the needle-valve setting. 

(5) The minimum needle-valve setting for alcohol 
was about double the minimum setting for gasoline, and 
about equal to the maximum setting possible for the same 
load with gasoline. 

(6) With alcohol fuel, using a slow-burning dilute 
fuel mixture, the consumption was perceptibly improved 
by using a very early ignition. 

(7) The mean effective pressure, and the maximum 
explosion pressure were about the same for both alcohol 
and gasoline at best consumption. 

(8) The highest mean effective pressures obtained 
with alcohol were appreciably greater than the highest 
obtained with gasoline. 

(9) The maximum power obtainable from the engine 
was appreciably higher with alcohol than with gasoline. 

(10) Much more alcohol could be supplied to the 
engine cylinder than would be vaporized in the carbu¬ 
reter, so that liquid alcohol entered the cylinder. 



36 


TRACTION FARMING 


(11) With alcohol the engine would run on a greater 
range of misadjustment than with gasoline. 

(12) The best consumption results obtained were 
0.69 lbs. of gasoline and 1.23 lbs. of alcohol, respectively, 
per brake horse power hour. 

(13) At best consumptions the mean effective pres¬ 
sures were 90 lbs. for both alcohol and gasoline. 

Conclusions .—The following general conclusions are 
drawn as a result of the investigations not only with 
the engines described, but with many others: 

(1) Any gasoline engine of the ordinary types can 
be run on alcohol fuel without any material change in 
the construction of the engine. The only difficulties like¬ 
ly to be encountered are in starting and in supplying a 
sufficient quantity of fuel, a quantity which must be 
considerably greater than the quantity of gasoline re¬ 
quired. 

(2) When an engine is run on alcohol its operation is 
more noiseless than when running on gasoline, its max¬ 
imum power is usually materially higher than it is on 
gasoline and there is no danger of any injurious ham¬ 
mering with alcohol such as may occur with gasoline. 

(3) For automobile air-cooled engines, alcohol seems 
to be especially adapted as a fuel, since the temperature 
of the engine cylinder may rise much higher before 
auto-ignition takes place than is possible with gasoline 
fuel, and if auto-ignition of the alcohol fuel does not 
occur, no injurious hammering can result. 

(4) The consumption of fuel in pounds per brake 
horse power, whether the fuel is gasoline or alcohol, 
depends chiefly upon the horse power at which the en¬ 
gine is being run and upon the setting of the fuel sup¬ 
ply valve. It is easily possible for the fuel consumption 


ALCOHOL AS FUEL 


37 


per horse power hour to be increased to double the 
best value, either by running the engine on a load below 

its full power or by a poor setting of the fuel supply 
valve. 

(5) These investigations also showed that the fuel 
consumption was affected by the time of ignition, by the 
speed, and by the initial compression of the fuel charge. 
No tests were made to determine the maximum pos¬ 
sible change in fuel consumption that could be produced 
by changing the time of ignition, but when near the 
best fuel consumption it was shown to be important to 
have an early ignition. So far as tested the alcohol 
fuel consumption was better at low than at high speeds. 
So far as investigated, increasing the initial compression 
from fO to 125 lbs. produced only a very slight improve¬ 
ment in the consumption of alcohol. 

(6) It is probable that for any given engine the fuel 
consumption is also affected by the quantity and tem¬ 
perature of cooling water used and the nature of the cool¬ 
ing system by the type of ignition apparatus, by the 
quantity and quality of lubricating oil, by the temperature 
and humidity of the atmosphere, and by the initial tem¬ 
perature of the fuel. 

(7) It seems probable that all well-constructed en¬ 
gines of the same size will have approximately the same 
fuel consumption when working under the most ad¬ 
vantageous conditions. 

(8) With any good small stationary engine as small a 
fuel consumption as 0.70 lb. of gasoline, or 1.16 lbs. of 
alcohol per brake horse power hour may reasonably be 
expected under favorable conditions. These values cor¬ 
respond to 0.118 and 0.170 gallon respectively, or 0.95 
pint of gasoline and 1.36 pints of alcohol. Based on 





38 


TRACTION FARMING 


the high calorific values of 21,120 B.t.u. per pound of 
gasoline and 11,880 per pound of alcohol, these consump¬ 
tions represent thermal efficiencies of 17.2 per cent for 
gasoline and 18.5 per cent for alcohol. 

But calculated on the basis of the low calorific values 
of 19,660 B.t.u. per pound for gasoline and 10,620 for 
alcohol, the thermal efficiencies become 18.5 for the for¬ 
mer fuel and 20.7 for alcohol. The ratio of the high 
calorific values used above is, gasoline to alcohol, 1.78. 



The corresponding ratio of the low calorific values 
is 1.85. The ratio of the consumptions mentioned above 
is alcohol to gasoline, 1.66 by weight, or 1.44 by volume. 

Testing Oil as a Fuel .—Figure 8 is a sectional view 
of one of the engines under test, and shows its work¬ 
ing parts. This engine was tested by using oil instead 























































































ALCOHOL AS FUEL 39 

of gasoline or alcohol for fuel. It is a single cylinder, 
horizontal engine, two-cycle, with crankcase compression. 

he head-end compression, as determined from indica¬ 
tor cards, is 84 lbs. per square inch. It is rated at 6 
h.p. at 360 r.p.m., having a cylinder diameter of 7 ins. 
and a stroke of 8 ins. The engine has no carbureter, 
but is fitted with a separate vaporizing chamber. Oil is 
supplied to a pump on top of the engine, which delivers 
it directly through pipe A to the vaporizer lip B. This 

pump also has a hand-operated handle C to deliver oil 
in starting. 

When the piston moves away from the shaft two 
things happen. First, in the motor cylinder compression 
takes place; second, in the crankcase the air expands to 
below atmospheric pressure. When the open end of the 
piston reaches the port in the bottom of the cylinder, 
marked “suction port,” air rushes in to fill the vacuum 
produced in the crankcase during the early part of this 
stroke. About the same time that compression has been 
completed in the head-end of the cylinder, the air has 
' carried the liquid fuel from the vaporizer lip into the 
bulb D, where the fuel is vaporized, mixed with the, air, 
and the mixture finally ignited. 

Under the influence of the high pressure resulting 
from this explosion, the piston moves forward until the 
bottom of the piston on its head-end uncovers the port 
marked E, which is the exhaust port. 

Immediately the pressure in the cylinder drops to at¬ 
mospheric pressure, and the top edge of the piston moves 
to, and uncovers a port on the top of the cylinder, which 
allows the compressed air in the crankcase to rush into 
the head-end of the cylinder, ready for compression on. 
the return stroke. 






CHAPTER IV. 

KEROSENE AS FUEL FOR TRACTION ENGINES. 

Kerosene is a good power fuel when compared with 
gasoline (1) because it is cheaper; (2) because it is not 
dangerously explosive; (3) because it will not waste by 
evaporation, and (4) because it can be purchased of 
every cross-road merchant. 

As a rule there is no change necessary in the engine 
or carbureter, both handling kerosene and gasoline alike 
for fuel, with the exception that for kerosene a little 
water sprayed with each charge into the intake or suc¬ 
tion current aids in the ignition and combustion of kero¬ 
sene, which is not necessary in the use of gasoline. 
V here kerosene has been tried, in many instances com¬ 
plaint was made of the strong, kerosene odor from the 
exhaust which was also reported as entirely or partially 
overcome by the use of the water spray. With no other 
change to the regular gasoline equipment than the kero¬ 
sene supply tank and pipe and small jet and pump for 
spraying a small quantity of water into each charge or 
suction current, the gasoline engine has been converted 
into a kerosene fuel engine which appears to be the 
equal in power development, running qualities, economy, 
etc., of the gasoline fuel engine. 

It is better to run the cylinder from 20 to 30 degrees 
hotter when using kerosene, and for this reason it is 
often advisable to stagnate the cooling circulation to a 


40 


KEROSENE AS FUEL FOR TRACTION ENGINES 41 

considerable degree. It is also generally agreed that 
kerosene will give better results under about 70 to 80 
lbs. per square inch compression than under a lower com¬ 
pression. Many gasoline engines do not carry over 50 or 
60 lbs. compression pressure, although a gasoline engine 
constructed for 70 lbs. compression will get more power 
from the gasoline used than when only 50 or 60 lbs. are 
had. A cross tee in the supply pipe next to the carbu¬ 
reter with one pipe leading to the gasoline tank and an¬ 
other to the kerosene supply tank with a shut off valve 
in each will enable the operator to feed gasoline or 
kerosene to his engine at will. It is generally the custom 


FIGURE 9. 

Hydrocarbon Gas Producer. 





*N. V 

■ — V , J .1 ... • , 


- - _ 


to start the engine on gasoline, since gasoline ignites 
more readily in a cool cylinder, and run it thus until the 
cylinder is well heated up, then turn on the kerosene and 
shut off the gasoline and the engine will usually run on 
without missing. When there is a little “chug” noticed 
in the cylinder the water spray pump may be started and 
by feeding this spray more or less freely the chug 







42 


TRACTION FARMING 


may be arrested and the explosions occur as smoothly and 
regularly as when gasoline is the fuel. 

Kerosene Gas Producer for Gasoline Engines .—Figure 
9 shows a gas producer that is applicable to either sta¬ 
tionary or traction engines, and to produce perfect com¬ 
bustion of the fuel, and thus insure a smokeless exhaust 
and clean cylinders. 

This device is known as a hydrocarbon gas producer. 
It is cylindrical in shape, about 14-ins. long and 6-ins. in 
■diameter. It has no moving parts, and, when once at¬ 
tached to the engine, becomes a permanent fixture and 
requires no attention whatever. When it is installed 
on an engine, the fuel is drawn through an atomizer and 
induced by the suction of the engine to go through pas¬ 
sages heated by the exhaust, so that the action is en¬ 
tirely automatic and the fuel supply is in proportion 
to the demands of the engine under all conditions of 
speed and load. By means of a hydrocarbon gas pro¬ 
ducer, any two-cycle or four-cycle gasoline engine of 
standard make may be run with kerosene as a 'fuel, with 
perfect combustion, no increase in fuel consumption, and 
no decrease in power. 




CHAPTER V. 


BALANCING OF ENGINES. 

Engines having only one cylinder as shown in Figure 
10 may be balanced to some extent by the judicious use 
of counterweights placed either directly opposite to the 
crank, or else placed opposite to the crank in the fly¬ 
wheels. 

The effect of these counterweights is to set up an 
oppositely acting force which attains its maximum value 
at the instant the pistons and connecting-rod come to 
rest. Thus one force acting in one direction is made 
to offset another, and presumably equal force acting in 
the opposite direction. The result is a nullification of 
both forces and consequent lack of vibration of the en¬ 
gine frame. To this condition is added the steadying ef¬ 
fect of very heavy flywheels which serve to absorb energy 
during the idle strokes of the engine. A perfect, or 
in fact, a near approach to perfect absorption of vibra¬ 
tion by this means would require the engine to run at 
constant speed, since a change in speed changes the in¬ 
tensity of the centrifugal forces set up by the revolving 
weights, in a different ratio from the way in which the 
forces due to the reciprocating forces change. Con¬ 
sequently an engine of this type can be balanced correctly 
for only one speed, and will vibrate more and more as 
the speed varies from the standard. The difficulty m- 

43 


I 




44 


TRACTION FARMING 


herent in the single cylinder engine has led to the general 
adoption of engines having two or more cylinders. In 
multiple cylinder engines, as they are called, the pistons 
and recipiocating parts can be so arranged that they 
move in opposite directions, and, if care is taken to 
make these parts of equal weight, they will counter¬ 
balance each other at any speed and thus reduce vibra¬ 
tion to a very small amount. 

. is the plan adopted in all double opposed en¬ 
gines of the horizontal type and is found to be quite 
satisfactory for all low powered engines. The pistons 


l 



Mo.ofcyl. 

OHDE.R OF SrnOHES 

1 

p 


£ 

c 


FIGURE 10. 


i z 



No. or 

GYL’S 

OTWETi OF STROKES 

1 

: p 

& 

aS 

c 

z 

s 

c 

7? 

.2 


FIGURE 11. 


are placed horizontally on each side of the crankshaft, 
with their open ends opposite each other. The cranks 
are placed 180 degrees apart, or, in other words, on 
exactly opposite sides of the crankshaft. Thus both 
pistons reach the head-ends of their respective cylinders 





































♦ BALANCING OF ENGINES 45 

\ 

at the same instant, but travel in opposite directions to 
do so. Thus the shock occasioned by bringing one piston 
to rest is offset by the other. 

Figures 10, 11, 12 and 13 show single-cylinder and 
two-cylinder crank arrangements, while Figure 14 shows 
a quadruple-cylinder engine with the cranks arranged in 
such a manner that the engine will make a power stroke 



Mo.ofcylx 

07?££if or srrroKss 

1 

~P 

B 

S 

c 

z_ 

— 

C 

-p 

X 

£ 


X 

£ 

c 

p 


HO OF CYL '5 

C7TD£ff or 

srrtot {£.$ 

1 

-P 

JE 

S 

c 

z 

£ 

C 

P 

X 


X 

£ 

C 

p 


FIGURE 12. FIGURE 13. 


during each revolution. In the table accompanying each 
illustration, P represents the power stroke, E exhaust, 
S suction, and C compression. An outward stroke must 
be either a power stroke or a suction stroke, and an in¬ 
ward stroke either exhaust or compression. It will be 
observed that with this arrangement of cylinders a power 
stroke can be made to occur during each revolution, if 
the valves and cams are set properly. The upper set 
of events opposite 2 in the table under Figure 14 shows 






































46 


traction farming 


/ 


the correct arrangement, while the lower set of event' 
shows a faulty arrangement, since it brings both powei 
strokes in the same revolution. 


Two-cylinder engines are often placed vertically, side 
by side, as indicated in Figures 11 and 12. Two arrange¬ 
ments of the cranks are possible with this construction 
They may be placed opposite or 180 degrees apart, or on 
he same side of the shaft in which case they are said 
to be 360 degrees apart. The order of strokes for both 
cases is clearly indicated in the figures. In Figure 11, 



X 


HO. Of CYL.% 

OHD£Jf OF S7FOA6.S 

1 



aS 

c 

£ 

\ 

JD 

$ 

c 

■p 

3 

C 

Ps 

X A 

hr - - 

aS 

4- aS 

c 

Vr 

JS 


FIGURE 14. 


there is a power stroke once in each revolution. The 
table shows an idle stroke in each cylinder between the 
power strokes, but in Figure 12 both power strokes occur 

, 3 SIn S>e revolution, while the other revolution is idle 
during both strokes in the two cylinders 

In the arrangement shown in Figure 11, the recipro- 














BALANCING OF ENGINES 


47 

i 

eating forces are not balanced, while in Figure 12 they 
are. However, of the two, the former is preferable, 
since it gives a steadier motion to the crankshaft and 
counterweights may be used to offset the unbalanced 
forces due to the reciprocating parts. 

Of the three arrangements of the two cylinders, the 
horizontal double' opposed is preferable, and possesses 
greater advantages. An inspection of the table in con¬ 
nection with Figure 14 will show that the order of firing 
is 1, 3, 4, 2 which is the way the majority of this type 
of engines are adjusted. 



CHAPTER VI. 

PISTON RINGS. 

The gas engine piston, like the steam engine piston, 
is fitted with rings. The piston itself is of necessity 
smaller in diameter than the cylinder, otherwise it would 
be impossible for it to serve its purpose. While 
the piston is only a very small fraction of an inch smaller 
than toe cylinder, from .02 to .03 of an inch, according to 
the size of the cylinder, this difference is quite sufficient 
to allow the escape of the power force unless there is 
piovision made to close up this differencee in diameters. 
This, then, is the office or function of the piston rings. 

Usually from two to four of these rings are fitted onto 
the piston. 

The ring is machined from a cast iron ring blank 
and just wide and thick enough to fit snugly into the 
groove in the piston. The outside diameter of the ring 
is somewhat larger than the bore of the cylinder so 
that when a piece from one-half to one inch long is cut 
out of the ring and the ends sprung together' and the 
outer circumference again turned to a complete circle, 
it will just fit the cylinder when the cut ends are held 
snugly together. Then by springing the ring open enough 
to slip it over the piston and pushing it along until it 
reaches one of the grooves it will snap into the groove 
Each groove in the piston is fitted with a ring In this 

48 


PISTON RINGS 


49 


way. Some manufacturers think it best to let the rings 
play at will in the circumference of the groove, while 
others stay them by means of a pin fastened at a point 
in the center of the bottom of the groove, preferably on 
the under side of the piston. This pin stands up to near¬ 
ly the height of the piston surface, and either a small 
nole, the size of the pin, is drilled into the ring, or the 
ends are cut in a manner to receive the pin, see Figure 
16, so as to stay the ring in its groove and hold the 
parted ends of the ring in the same position in the cylin¬ 
der circumference. The pin for each ring may be so 
placed as to hold the cut or open ends of the rings at a 
point about one-third of the circumference of the piston 



Top, FIGURE 15. 
Bottom, FIGURE 16. 
Piston Rings. 


from the several ends of the other rings. This is what 
is known as breaking joints and insures against a di¬ 
rect line of escape in case any of the ring joints should 
leak. 

There are two methods of cutting the rings. One 








































































50 


TRACTION FARMING 


makes a diagonal joint, as shown in Figure 16, the other 
a lap joint, as shown at the top in Figure 15. Either 
of these makes an effective joint, if carefully done, and 
not too much of the ring is cut out. 

By this time it is no doubt plainly evident to the 
reader how the ring serves its purpose due to the fact 
that when the ring is first turned, its outside diameter 
is larger than the cylinder diameter and in this condi¬ 
tion it could, of course, never enter the cylinder opening. 
To bring the diameter of the ring down to that of the 
cylinder, however, a piece is taken out of the ring and 
the ends sprung together. This reduces the ring diam¬ 
eter, but it also changes it from a true circle, which 
it was before the part was cut out and the ends pressed 
together, to an oval or oblong shape. Since the bore of 
the cylinder is supposed to be a true circle, something 
else is necessary to make the ring fit the cylinder. Con¬ 
sequently, all manufacturers who want to make their 
rings most effective clamp the rings with their ends 
together and turn their outer circumference again to 
a true circle so that its diameter is but a very small frac¬ 
tion less than that of the cylinder. By this means a 
perfect ring with an outward spring is made, which fits 
snugly to the walls of the cylinder when it is adjusted 
to the piston groove. It is therefore readily seen how 
such rings will fit the cylinder so snugly as to close 
up any space between piston and cylinder walls and there¬ 
by prevent the escape of the explosive force and help 
in distributing the lubricating oil to all parts of the 
cvlinder. J 

Two styles of rings are shown in Figure 15; one being 
of uniform thickness and the other extra heavy on the 
bottom. 


PISTON RINGS 


51 


Properly working piston rings are fuel and power 
savers. Improperly working rings are wasteful both of 
power and fuel, as well as lubricating oil, which often re¬ 
sults in serious damage to the cylinder. It is therefore 
important to keep ring grooves clean and the rings work¬ 
ing perfectly. 













CHAPTER VII. 


VALVES. 








valve in a very bad or pitted condition 
causes bad compression and the exhaust valve should be 
ground occasionally. After grinding a valve be sure 
that there is ample clearance between the valve and the 
hfter. It should have not less than one-thirty-second of 
an inch, otherwise when the valve becomes hot it will 
not seat properly, poor compression being the result 
In grinding a valve there is no occasion to use force' 
and the grinding should be done lightly, the valve bein^ 
hfted from time to time so that any foreign substance in 
the emery will not cut a ridge in the seat or the valve 
i self. After, grinding a valve always wash out the 
va ve seat with a little kerosene and be careful that 

cylinder * aU ° Wed g£t int0 the en ? ine 

Sometimes an engine may suddenly stop from the 
failure of a valve to seat properly. This may be due to 
the warping of the valve through the engine having run 
ry and become hot, or it may be from the failure of the 
valve spring or the sticking of the valve stem in its 
guides. The valve should be removed and the stem 
ceaned and scraped, or straightened if it requires it 
until it moves freely in the guide, and the spring is 


52 


valves 


53- 


given its full tension. If the valve still leaks so that 
the engine will not start or develop sufficient power, the 
valve will have to be ground into its seat. 

Valves which need re-seating should first be ground 

in place with fine emery and oil, then finished with tripoli 
and water. 

Valves and Valve Chambers .—The dimensions of the 
inlet and exhaust valve openings are governed by the 
diameter of the cylinder and the piston velocity in feet 
per minute. The form of valve chamber in general use 
is made separate and bolted to the cylinder. The valve 
chamber can then be entirely renewed if necessary and 
at small expense. Other forms of valve chambers have 
the valves placed horizontally in the cylinder head. In 
any case the valves should be brought as close as possible 
to the inside of the cylinder, the clearance space in the 
ports being reduced to a minimum. 

In engines of large size the inlet and exhaust valve 
chamber is surrounded by a water jacket, which main¬ 
tains its proper temperature and prevents the valve 
seats being warped from overheating, which might other¬ 
wise occur. 

When the inlet valve is atmospherically or suction op¬ 
erated, it is opened by the partial vacuum in the cylinder 
during the suction period, and closed by a spring. The 
inlet and exhaust valve openings are usually made of 
such a diameter that the velocity of the gas as it enters 
the cylinder is about 100 ft. per second, the velocity of 
the exhaust gases through the exhaust opening being 
about 80 ft. per second. 

Diameter and Lift of Valves .—To ascertain the proper 
diameter of inlet and exhaust valve openings and the lift 
of the valve to give an opening equal to the area of the 










54 


TRACTION FARMING 


valve opening, the following formulas will be found use¬ 
ful : 

Let B be the bore of the motor cylinder in inches, 
and S the stroke of the piston also in inches. As R is 
the, number of revolutions per minute and D the re¬ 
quired diameter of the valve opening, then 

BXSXR 

D=- 

15,000 

Example: Required the diameter of the admission- 
valve opening for a motor of 6-in. bore and 9-in. stroke 
at 600 r.p.m. 

Answer: As 6 multiplied by 9 and by 600 equals 
32,400, then 32,400 divided by 15,000 gives 2.16 ins. as 
the diameter of the valve opening. 

The lift of the 45-degree bevel-seat form of valve re¬ 
quires to be about three-eighths of the diameter of the 
valve opening: that is, if L is the required lift of the 
valve and D the diameter of the valve opening, then 

D 

L=-=0.35 D 

2.83 

The bevel-seat form of valve is to be preferred to the 
flat-seat or mushroom type of valve, for two reasons; 
first, that it is more readily kept in shape by re-grinding' 

and second, it gives a freer and more direct passage for 
the gases. 

For an atmospherically operated admission-valve which 
will insure practically a full charge in the motor cylinder 
-the formula should be 

BXSXR 


12,750 







VALVES 


55 


Both inlet and exhaust valves should be of ample area 
. an d short lift, and be arranged so that they may be read¬ 
ily inspected and adjusted, and with as few joints as 
possible. 

Valve Lifters .—Figure 17 illustrates a form of valve 
operating mechanism in which the valve is actuated by 
means of a roller upon the end of a rocker arm, to 



FIGURE 17. 

Valve Lifter and Roller Lever with Hardened Steel Lifter 

Plate. 

the upper side of which is secured a hardened steel 
plate, which in most cases acts directly upon the end 
of the valve stem. 

Another form of valve lifter is shown in Figure 18 in 
which the rocker arm is omitted, the cam operating the 
valve through the medium of a plunger rod and roller. 










56 


TRACTION FARMING 


I alve O perating Alechonism. —A. form of valve op¬ 
erating mechanism is shown in Figure 19, in which both 
the inlet and exhaust valves are operated independently 
by means of a rocker-shaft and lifting-arms, through the 
medium of two cam-rods and levers shown at the right 
of the drawing. The lifter-arm and cam-rod lever of 
the inlet valve are in one piece, and work free on the 
end of the rocker shaft. 



figure 18. 

Valve Lifter with Cam Acting Directly on the Lifter. 


Fit of Valve Stems .—The inlet and exhaust valve 
stems should not be a very close fit in their guides. If 
the fit in these guides is made too close, when the valve 
chamber becomes heated the consequent expansion may 
cause the valve stem to stick in the guides and leakage 
of the valve will result. 

The valve seats are in some engines left almost sharp, 

being not more than one-sixteenth of an inch wide be- 
fore grinding. 

Timing of Valves .—The movement of the valves should 


















VALVES 


57 


always be timed to give the proper results.* This is an 
important point to remember. The camshaft on a four¬ 
cycle engine is usually driven by the two to one gear 
on the crankshaft, and if for any reason the gears are 
taken apart and put together, with only one tooth out of 
I place, it will throw the valve mechanism out of time. 

To ascertain if the valves of an engine are properly 



FIGURE 19. 

iValve Operating- Mechanism, Showing- Inlet and Exhaust- 

Valves and Lifter Rods. 

timed, turn the flywheel over slowly and notice at what 
points the valves open and close, and when the ignition, 
if electric, takes place. 

The exhaust valve should open when about five-sixths 
of the stroke is completed and close at the end of the next 
stroke. The next inward stroke is the compression 
stroke, when all valves should be closed. At the begin¬ 
ning of the next outward stroke the inlet valve should be 
slightly open. 
































58 


TRACTION FARMING 


_ If the engine is taken to pieces, it is important that 
a tooth of the gear wheel on the crankshaft and a cor¬ 
responding space of the gear on the camshaft should be 
marked, so that when put together again the same teeth 
may mesh together, and so avoid altering the throw of 
the cams and consequent timing of the valves. 



FIGURE 20. 


Valve Troubles .—Some of the things that may happen 
to the valve are: A warped disk, F, Figure 20, which 
would prevent the valve from seating properly; thus 
the compression would escape past to the exhaust. The 
valve stem, H, may become carbonized and fail to work 
free in the guide, in which case it will stick part way 
open and the engine will have little or no compression. 
I he valve, stem should not be oiled, because of the great 
amount of heat it is subject to. The oil will burn"and 















VALVES 


59 


carbonize and in a very short time the valve will fail 
to work. The valve spring needs attention as well as the 
valve itself. It, like the valve, is subject to a certain 
amount of heat and after a time will lose its tension 
and fail to cause the valve to seat properly. In this case 
the spring must be replaced with a new one, but if no 
new one is at hand the old one may be taken off and 
stretched until it gives the required tension. A point 
which affects power and must not be overlooked is the 
j distance between the valve stem and the lift. In case 
the valve lift should not raise the valve high enough 
to allow a full charge to enter the cylinder, or the burned 
charge to be driven from the cylinder the engine would 
run very well when empty, but when the power was 
applied would die down at once. 






CHAPTER VIII. 


LEAKY PISTONS. 

Leaky pistons are not only annoying, but exceedingly 
wasteful of fuel and power. In a closed base engine, 
such as a two-cycle or multiple cylinder automobile 
motor, it is not always easy to determine where the 
trouble is and what is the real cause of it. A leak 
past the piston may result from ill-fitting rings, or from 
clogged rings, from a scored or scratched cylinder wall, 
from a puncture in the piston walls or in the head. 
Whatever the cause, much damage may finally result if 
allowed to continue any length of time. When a leak 
by any portion of the piston wall occurs it not only 
allows the escape of the expansive force, but it also 
causes a prompt drying up of the lubrication along the 
overheated path of the escape. And the moment lubrica¬ 
tion is checked and becomes ineffective scoring of the 
cylinder is liable to begin. And when the friction once 
becomes so great that the walls of the cylinder begin 
to cut or score they will be quickly damaged and often 
beyond repair. 

A leak resulting from poorly fitted piston rings may 
be distinguished by dark colored sections along the 
course of the outer circumference of the ring. A ring 
that fits the cylinder perfectly is bright and smooth in 
its entire circumference. But one that is bright only in 
spots on its circumference, in reality, only touches the 
walls of the cylinder in spots. This indicates that either 


60 


LEAKY PISTONS 


61 


the cylinder is not round or that the rings are not 
properly fitted to the cylinder. 

asfi , b °" ng ° Ut a cylinder, by the dulling of the tool, 
as it takes its cut from one end of the cylinder, it may 

leave the end where the cut is finished smaller than the 

T ons equently a piston and rings that will fit the 
small end will be too small for the other end of the 
cylinder and will therefore usually allow the escape of 
the explosive force. A cylinder should not only be a 
true circle on its interior diameter, but the circle should 
e o exactly the same diameter from end to end. Prob¬ 
ably next to imperfect fitting rings and cylinder diameter 
the clogged ring gives most trouble. 

Burnt carbon from a poor quality of lubricating oil 
or from too free use of oil or rust or dirt of any kind 
t at becomes baked onto the rings may cause them to 
stick, tight in their grooves and thus become entirely 
inactive and useless. Sometimes this condition may be 
helped and apparently overcome entirely by injecting- 
kerosene into the cylinder. This has a tendency to dis¬ 
solve and soften up the baked carbon which is gradually 
gotten rid of by flushing itself out of the cylinder with 
the surplus kerosene. But many times it is necessary 


to remove the piston from the cylinder and saturate it 
in kerosene until the rings get loose and can be lifted 
from their grooves and be thoroughly cleaned by scrap¬ 
ing and washing with kerosene or gasoline. The grooves 
in the piston should receive the same treatment before 
f the rin gs are replaced in them. 

A puncture in the piston walls or head usually results 
from a sand or blow hole in the casting, or if pins are 
used in the ring grooves to stay the rings, the pin hole 
may extend through the piston wall at the bottom of the 






62 


TRACTION FARMING 


groove and when the pin gets loose and drops out there 
is a leak hole through the bottom of the ring groove. 
The indications of a leaky piston are: Low compression, 
loss of power and a blowing sound in the crankcase when 
the piston is moving in on its compression stroke. The 
correction of the cause, in a leaky piston, promptly, will 
save much worry, fuel, and often much unnecessary ex¬ 
pense. 





- f'V 


7 


t 


CHAPTER IX. 
the cylinder. 

Cylinder Construction —Cylinders made with a loose 
head require the joint to be made with great care Z 
asbestos or copper ring is used to make this Toint and 
sometimes wire gauze with asbestos is used. 



j-' iuu njtii zi. 


Ga S or Gasoline Engine Cylinder, with Detachable Water- 

Cooled Head. 


Figure 21 shows a cylinder with a loose water- jacketed 

, h “i; t ich b r ,he »<■ 

ocated. Tins style of cy i inder has f Qr 
either side to attach it to the bedplate. 

° f C ^ der iS Sh ° Wn in Fi ^ ure 22 « which 
the cylinder and head are cast in one piece. It has a 

separate valve chamber (not shown) which bolts on 

e si e o the cylinder and communicates with the 

combustion chamber by a port or passage shown in the 


63 












64 


TRACTION FARMING 


drawing. This style of cylinder is attached to the bed¬ 
plate by means of a circular sleeve which fits into an 
opening at the end of the bedplate and is drawn up 
against the circular flange shown by means of bolts. 



FIGURE 22. 

Gas or Oil Engine Cylinder, with Cylinder and Head Cast Integral. 

Cylinder Boring .—A good way to bore a cylinder is to 
make a boring-bar to fit in the drill socket of a back- 
geared drill press and a brass or phosphor bronze bush¬ 
ing to fit in the center hole of the table of the drill 
press. The cylinder can be clamped to the table of the 
drill press by its flange and bored out with a cutter set 
in the boring-bar. Not less than three, and preferably 
four cuts, should be taken to make a good job. A man¬ 
drel should then be made with two flanged hubs, one of 
which should be fastened to the mandrel and the other 
turned slightly taper so as to make a snug fit in the 
cylinder bore when in place. The ends of the cylinder 
can then be finished on the mandrel and a perfect job 
will be the result. In case a back-geared drill press* 
is not handy the cylinder can be clamped to the carriage 
of the lathe, bored out with a bar in the lathe centers 
and the ends finished in the manner above described, 
but it is a much slower job than in a drill press. The 










THE CYLINDER 

o5 

cutter for the bar should be made from a piece of 

diamet t f ^ ^ than five - ei S hths of an inch 

diameter It can then be readily adjusted to any de¬ 
sired angle to obtain the best cutting effect. 

Cylinder Sweating.— Sometimes water will collect in 
e cy in er as a result of the interior walls of both the 
cylinder and cylinder-head sweating. This, however, does 
not often happen except on very warm days when a 
considerable volume of cold water has been allowed 
to flow through the water-jacket after the engine has 
been shut down, and this seldom applies where the 
thermo-syphon water-cooling system is used. It is more 
■able to happen where the cold water from a hydrant 
has been allowed to flow through the water-jacket. 






CHAPTER X. 

THE CARBURETER OR MIXER. 

The principal difference between the gas engine and 
those engines, such as gasoline, oil, etc., that use a liquid 
fuel is, that with the latter the gas is generated within 
the engine itself while in operation, while with the former 
the gas is supplied from outside sources. 

In early gas engine practice a gasoline or oil vapor 
gas was made by passing air in close proximity to a 
large surface of the liquid fuel. The air was thus 
saturated with the vapor of the gasoline or oil, and be¬ 
came a vapor gas similar to artificial or natural gas. This 
vapor gas was piped to the engine and mixed with air in 
proper proportion to secure the quickest and best com¬ 
bustion. This principle of mixng is used now with natu¬ 
ral, artificial and producer gas. The next development in 
the use of liquid fuel was the mixer, or" carbureter, by 
which a minute quantity of the gasoline or oil is measured 
and supplied with each charge of air entering the engine 
cylinder. With the stationary, single cylinder, industrial 
engines in common use the device for measuring the 
liquid fuel is called a mixer, and is usually made a part 
of the engine. A gasoline or fuel pump and constant 
level overflow cup is provided so that the gasoline tank 
may be located outside of the building iry compliance 
with insurance regulations about the storage of gasoline. 



66 




67 


the carbureter or mixer 


meaSUri, «- 

to the engine. generally an accessory 

Figure 23 shows the principle of the constant level 

overflow mixer system, commonly employed in the single 
cylinder stationary engine, A ,, ^ 

flow cup, showing how the gasoline or liquid fuel rises 

the cup SPr B "Th ’ F ’ A the Same IeveI rna * nta ined in 
the cup. B is the pipe from the gasoline pump and 

back to'trt 7 T- th f ,6adS - the SUr P ,us gasoline 
an ' ® IS gasoline regulator E the 
air regulator, F the spray nozzle and G the short passage 



FIGURE 23. 

to the inlet valve of the engine. At a given speed the 
engine draws in a certain amount of air by the regulator, 
• I he air rushing past spray nozzle, F, draws a small 
quantity of gasoline, measured by regulator, D, from the 




















































(68 


TRACTION FARMING 


spray nozzle, and carries it into the cylinder of the en¬ 
gine. The natural heat in the air supply, assisted by the 
heat of the cylinder, turns the gasoline spray into a gas 
that burns like a flash or “explodes’’ when compressed 
and ignited by the engine, provided of course that the 
right proportion of air and gasoline has been obtained. 
This is easily known by adjusting the fuel and air regula¬ 
tors, and observing the action of the engine, especially 
under load. The greatest amount of air with the least 



FIGURE 24. 


amount of gasoline for the strongest pull at a given 
speed will be the correct position for the regulators. For 
easy starting the air regulator should be closed a little, 
then opened again when the engine gets up speed. 

















THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


69 


Figure 24 is an illustration of an accessory carbureter, 
such as is commonly used on multiple cylinder and light 
motors, although it is applicable to any type of engine. A 
float, M, controlling a valve, O, takes the place of pump 
and overflow system shown in Figure 23, maintaining a 
constant level of the fuel in the spray nozzle, L. The 
float chamber is placed around the spray nozzle so that 
in traction or marine work, involving various angles and 
positions of the machine, there will be no variation of 
the fuel level in the spray nozzle. The fuel tank is 
usually placed above the carbureter, and connected by 
pipe P to float valve O. The liquid fuel is thus fed 
to the float chamber by gravity. By using a light air 
pressure in the tank it may be placed below the car¬ 
bureter, but this is not often done. The mixer shown 
in Figure 23 is designed for a given engine speed. If 
the engine speed is changed the air and gasoline regula¬ 
tors must also be changed to get the best results. The 
carbureter is generally designed to automatically adjust 
itself to a considerable range of engine speed. Thus in 
Figure 24 the air for starting and slow speed enters at 
T. As the engine speed increases the compensating 
valve, G, opens, more air is admitted and the syphon 
force exerted on the spray nozzle, L, is kept in fairly 
accurate proportions to the requirements of the en¬ 
gine. 

K is a butterfly throttle valve for governing either au¬ 
tomatically or positively the amount of mixture admitted 
to the cylinder, and thus controlling the speed and power. 
Some makers connect the needle valve, A, to the throttle 
lever, R, in such a way that on full open throttle the 
needle valve is given additional opening. Other designs 
like the one illustrated in Figure 24 depend entirely on 





70 


TRACTION FARMING 


the compensating valve for the proportion of liquid 
fuel and air, covering the range of speed and power 
required of the engine. Aside from the differences in 
regulation and control, the essential principles of the 
overflow and float feed systems are practically the same. 

Figure 25 illustrates the principle of the generator 
or mixing valve, a very common method of measuring the 




FIGURE 25. 


liquid fuel for making each charge of gas for a gas en¬ 
gine. The liquid fuel (generally from a tank higher than 
the valve) is supplied to the fuel regulator, D. When 
the intake stroke of the engine draws air through the 
valve a small quantity of gasoline or fuel oil, measured 
by regulator D, is drawn from the drilled opening to the 
valve seat, G. When not in action the valve is held 
to itsvseat by a light tension spring, thus preventing the 













































THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


71 


continued flow of the liquid fuel. This type of mixer 
or measuring device is especially well suited to two 
port two-cycle engines, but has been successfully em¬ 
ployed by large numbers of four-cycle engines as well. 

| E is a regulator for the stroke of the valve. F is a 
butterfly valve for controlling the amount of mixture 
admitted and the speed and power of the engine. 

Where insurance regulations or other considerations 
make it advisable to dispense with a considerable gravity 
head of fuel, the pump and overflow systems may be at¬ 
tached as shown in the drawing, Figure 25. A is the 
overflow cup showing the small quantity of head fuel 
supply. B is the pipe from the gasoline pump, and C 
the pipe leading the overflow back to the tank. 

Owing to the pulsations of the valve on some types 
of' engines a small amount of vapor is blown back from 
the valve with each stroke. A piece of pipe, 8 or 10 
inches long, to be attached as indicated by H will effect 
quite a saving of gasoline or fuel oil. 

These illustrations show the principles of the various 
devices now in general use for making gas out of gaso¬ 
line, kerosene or other liquid fuel. It should be borne 
in mind that they are chiefly measuring devices, and 
depend on the heat of the incoming air and the heat 
of the cylinder for the vaporization or gasification of 
the liquid measured for each charge. The lighter and 
more volatile the liquid fuel, the better the vaporization. 
This is the reason gasoline is 'so generally used. The 
complete vaporization of the - heavier oils and spirits 
such as kerosene and alcohol requires special attention 
for equally successful results. Even gasoline in cold 
weather needs hot air for the first few charges in 
starting, Some makers of engines provide a generating 





72 


TRACTION FARMING 


cup to hold a small amount of gasoline for heating the 
intake pipe for easy starting in cold weather. 

The higher the speed of the engine the less time there 
is for the thorough gasification of the measured liquid for 
each charge. The heat of the cylinder has less effect. 
The use of multiple cylinders has brought greatly in¬ 
creased practical speeds. These facts, together with the 



FIGURE 26. 
Simple Mixer. 


very desirable purpose of serving each cylinder of an 
engine with an equal quantity of an equally carbureted 
mixture, seems likely to bring further improvements 
in gas generating devices for liquid fuel. The present 
practice is to put the measuring mixer, carbureter or* 














THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


73 


generator valve, as the case may be, as close to the 
, cylinder intake valves as possible, and depend principally 
on the heat of the cylinders for completing the gasifica¬ 
tion. A complete gasification of the charge before it 
reaches the cylinders would certainly add to the fuel 
economy, smoothness and reliability of action in high 
speed multiple cylinder engines, if it can be accomplished 
in a practical way, and without possible ignition of the 
mixture in the carbureter and intake manifold. 

Types of Carbureters .—There are many different de¬ 
vices for evaporating the fuel oils, and they range from 
the simple mixer shown in Figures 25 and 26 to the 



FIGURE 27. 
Carbureter. 


elaborate carbureter shown in Figures 24 and 27. The 
mixer may be built along lines of very rigid simplicity, 
consisting of but few parts; while on the other hand 
the carbureter consists of an aggregation of parts, both 
moving and stationary, all requiring proper adjustment. 






74 


TRACTION FARMING 


The easiest service for a carbureter is that required 
by a single cylinder stationary engine operating on a 
constant load. The most exacting service is that on 
an automobile where both the loads and speeds are 
variable, and all kinds of roads are traveled. 

Action of Carbureters .—One of the first requirements 
of a carbureter is to deliver the oil automatically, to suit 



variable loads and speeds, with the vehicles on various 
grades, and when tilting sidewise; also, the carbureter 
must not be affected by the vibration of the vehicle. The 





























THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 75 

general method by which the oil is kept at a constant 
level in the carbureter is by the use of a float-feed 
valve. The principle of this valve is shown in Figure 
28. The float valve A is in a separate chamber from 
the body of the carbureter. .The float is made of sheet 
copper and is lifted by the oil in the reservoir so as to 
shut off the supply by the needle valve F. The height of 
| the oil is kept at a level about from one-eighth to three- 
sixteenths of an inch below the spray nozzle H. A 
modern carubreter using the float feed is shown in Fig¬ 
ure 27. A sectional view of this carbureter is shown in 
Figure 29. In this make the needle valve is below the 



In This Carbureter the Needle Valve is Below the Float 

and is Closed by a Spring-. 

float A, and the gasoline connection is at N with a 
strainer T. Where the needle valve is below the float, 
the valve must be closed by its own weight or by a 
spring as in, Figure 29. The weight of the float operates 


























76 


TRACTION FARMING 


on a pair of levers when it settles down, lifting the valve 
and admitting more oil. This construction is shown in 
Figure 30. The weight W presses the valve to its seat 
when the float A is clear of the levers H. When the oil 
level lowers, the weight of the float resting on the outer 
ends of the levers lifts the valve. 

.In addition to the float feed, the carbureter shown in 
Figures 27 and 29 has special features to meet the re¬ 
quirements of variable speeds and loads. The spray 



FIGURE 30. 

The Needle Valve in This Case is Weighted and is Raised 
by the Float Acting Through Levers “H.” 

nozzle K is central and stands vertically in the air tube 
w here the oil is atomized. The air supply enters through 
the openings around the horizontal tube M. The size of 
these openings is regulated by a concentric slide P, and 























THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


77 


a butterfly valve O is used in a hot air connection to this 
tube. There is also a second spray nozzle S, and a sec¬ 
ond air intake at Y. A throttle valve is located in the 
vapor delivery tube Z. 

The use of a second spray nozzle and air inlet forms 
a special improvement on carbureters for high speed 
service. It is thought impossible to make a carbureter 
with a single air inlet that will supply vapor for all 
speeds of the engine. Hence, the method of construc¬ 
tion is to make and adjust the lower inlet for low engine 



speeds, as at M, Figure 29, and the second inlet for 
high speeds. The way in which these two air inlets 
work together and automatically is interesting. In the 
first place, it must be understood that a gas engine re¬ 
quires a richer mixture for low speeds, as at starting, 






















78 TRACTION FARMING 

than for high speeds. By locating the second air inlet 
above the spray nozzle, the vapor is made lean. This 
is desirable because a weak mixture burns faster than a 
rich one. At low speeds and when under heavy loads. 



Top, FIGURE 32. 

C rbureter nith Adjustments Designed to Take Care < 

Any speed or Any Atmospheric Condition. 

| 

c .. , Bottom, FIGURE 33 

Sectional View of Figure T \ 

•figure 32, Showing Interior Construction, 












THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


79 


a rich mixture is desirable, because it is slow burning 
and keeps up a higher working pressure during the' 
stroke. 

Adjustments of the various springs, levers and valves 
are made so that the engine gets its entire supply of oil 
vapor from the central nozzle K and the air from the 
lower tube up to about 600 r.p.m. A further increase 
of suction from a higher speed will open the auxiliary 
air valve Y. As this valve is connected to the upper 
spray nozzle S by the lever E, the second spray nozzle 
begins to operate with the extra air supply. A water 
jacket Q surrounds the vapor chamber. Hot water from 



Detailed View of the Three Air Inlets of Figure 32. 


1 - ' 

the engine jacket is piped to the carbureter, the connec¬ 
tions L and G being for this purpose. There is a hot 
air connection at O so as to insure heated air for vapor¬ 
izing the oil. The air is heated by arranging a sleeve 
N around the exhaust manifold of the engine, as shown 
































































so 


TRACTION FARMING 


in Figure 31. The sleeve is connected by an armored 
tube M to the carbureter, and conducts the air to the 
vaporizer chamber. 

Another type of float feed carbureter is shown in 
Figures 3 2 and 33. In this example the copper float 



A, Figure 33, operates a weighted lever—valve V_ 

by resting on a lever L. The lifting of the float allows 
the weight to seat the valve V and shut off the oil. The 
characteristic features of this carbureter are the three 

























THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


81 


air inlets, the mechanically operated air valve and spray 
nozzle, together with a fixed open air nozzle and an 
automatic one. This carbureter also has three adjust¬ 
ments. At first sight one is bewildered by this great 
array of mechanical combinations, but the method of 
operation is single. This example shows, however, the 
great ingenuity displayed by inventors to produce a 
perfect mixture of gasoline vapor and air at all engine 



Connections for Operating the Spray Nozzle from the Dash. 

speeds and under all conditions of atmospheric humidity. 

The lower air-intake has a butterfly valve H linked to 
the throttle valve T of similar design (see Figures 34, 
35 and 36 for use of reference letters). Hence, when the 
throttle is opened, the air valve H also opens. The 























82 


TRACTION FARMING 


automatic air intake has a conical valve J, which is held 
o its seat by a spring. The suction of the engine at 
lgh speed causes this valve J to admit additional air. 
The tension of the spring is regulated by the screw 
sleeve X that is turned by hand. The spray nozzle is at 
N and it is closed by the needle valve P having a long 
vertical stem S. There is a venturi air tube C through 
the side of the carbureter opposite the spray nozzle. This 
opening is not shown in Figures 32 and 33, but will 
be seen in the diagram Figure 34. The spray valve is 
kept closed normally by a spring R pressing against the 
pper end. By a system of levers and cams, this spray 
valve ,s connected to the throttle valve stem and it is 
moved in conjunction with it. There is also a second 
system of levers by which the spray valve can be operated 
independently of the throttle connection by the wire Y 

igures 32 and 36. In auto service this wire extends 
to a button on the dash. 

Details of the working parts of this carbureter are 
illustrated diagrammatically in Figures 34, 35 and 36. 

A s e t he XC, eVer L ila f 3 Cam ° n t ' lc ,ower end. 
As the throttle opens, the cam G forces the lever F 

Figure 35, downwards and turns the supporting shaft 

shown F g ™ S $haft CarrieS 3 D (also 

shown in Figures 33, 34, 35 and 36) which engages a 

^ot cut in the side of the spray valve stem S. Hence 

the turning of the shaft K to the right lifts the spray 

valve. On the shaft K is another lever O, Figure 36 

having a vertical shaft turning through it. At the top 

of this horizontal shaft is a lever U to which the 

operating wire Y is attached, and at the lower end is a 

cam E. The pulling of the wire, therefore, turns the 

cam against t.ie end of the adjusting screw P, forcing 













THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


83 


the lever O to the left and turning the shaft K to the 
right as before, and opening the spray valve S. The 
purpose of the second motion of the spray valve is to 
make it possible to admit more gasoline without change of 
throttle. 

Non-Adjustable Carbureter .—It will have been no¬ 
ticed in the foregoing descriptions of carbureters that 
each of the examples has various adjustments made by 



FIGURE 37. 

A Modern Carbureter Having no Spring or Lever Adjustments. 

levers, screws, springs, valves, etc. This would indicate 
that the service to which a carbureter is subjected is 
varied, and that the builders of them are endeavoring to 
accommodate all the demands of the trade. It is inter¬ 
esting to note, however, that the solution of the problem 

of the adjustments has been attempted by building a 

• 






84 


TRACTION FARMING 


carbuieter having - no adjustments. One form of this 
type is shown in Figures 37, 38 and 39. 

It will be seen from the sectional view, Figure 38 , 
that this particular make has a float feed, but that the 
levers operating the needle valve B are above the float, 
and they close the valve from the flotation effect of the 
oil on the float. The spray nozzle C delivers the oil 



FIGURE 38. 




Sectional View of Figures 37 and 39. 


•central in the air tube D where its area is contracted, 
ihe air for evaporation flows upward through a gauze 
screen in the large opening E at the bottom. The con¬ 
traction of area at the bottom middle of the air tube is 
peculiar, but there is a scientific reason for its use. A 
tube formed in this way, shown enlarged in Figure 40 , 





















































THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


85 



is called a venturi tube from the name of its Italian 
inventor. The amount of air or any gas flowing through 
a short tube can be greatly increased or the amount 
modified by the form of the tube. Strange to say, the 
greatest flow is not obtained by using a straight tube, 
as at A, Figure 40. On the contrary, more air will be 
delivered by the contracted tube shown at B, where the 


FIGURE 39. 

The Auxiliary Air Valve Consists of a Row of Bronze 
Balls of Different Weights. ' 

outlet from the reservoir tapers thirty degrees and the 
delivery end of the tube has a seven-degree taper. This 
greatly increased flow of air around the spray nozzle 
aids in the evaporation of the oil, and the vapor is de- 



86 


TRACTION FARMING 


liverecl in an expanding volume in the mixing chamber 
where the additional air is admitted. 

Ihe auxiliary air valve on this carbureter is distinc¬ 
tive. It consists of a row of bronze balls G, Figures 38 
and 39, set in a cage J, each ball covering an air inlet. 
The balls are graded in weight, so that as the suction 
of the engine becomes greater from the increased speed, 
the lightest ball will be lifted from its seat first and ad- 


A 



FIGURE 40. 

The Amount of Air or Gas Flowing Through a Short 
Tube can be Greatly Increased or the Amount 
Modified by the Form of the Tube.” 

mit more air to the mixing chamber F. Following the 
lifting of the lightest ball, the others are lifted in the 
order of their weights with the further increase of suc¬ 
tion until the entire auxiliary air supply becomes avail¬ 
able at the maximum speed of the engine. The car- 
bureter size is selected for the power of the engine and 
its service, and its operation is entirely automatic aside 
















THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


87 


from the handling of the throttle valve L. The throttle 
is operated by means of a small lever mounted on the 
steering wheel of the auto. A system of rods and levers 
connects the hand lever to the throttle, the rod M and 
the lever N, Figure 37 being a part of this system. Two 
adjustable screw stops O, Figure 37, are set so as to 
strike the nut P and limit the throw of the throttle valve. 
The hot water jacket H around the vaporizing chamber 
is connected to the engine jacket. The extra heat is 
quite necessary, especially in the winter season and for 
using the heavier grades of gasoline now on the market. 

Cotton Double-Tube Cuvbuveter .—It is well known 
that fifty per cent of the troubles causing “shut downs” 
in gas engines is due to faulty ignition; not to that 
part which furnishes the electric current supply, but to 
that part on the engine which engages the compressed 
charge. 

In large gas engines having a plurality of cylinders a 
defective igniter is replaced by cutting out the cylinder, 
extracting the igniter and inserting a new one, while the 
engine is running. Such a method is very amateurish 
land dangerous as the gas continues to flow in and out of 
the igniter canal with intense force, and the power of the 
engine is very much lowered. 

Figure 40A illustrates an igniter which it is claimed 
eliminates most of the trouble with this, the most vital 
point in the machine. The device consists of a casing, 
preferably water-jacketed, containing a pair of ignition 
pockets in which are located the electrodes. A central 
hand-controlled valve,, having a passage leading to the 
combustion chamber, opens or closes communication be¬ 
tween the combustion chamber to either of the ignition 
pockets. The electric circuit is connected to a binding 




88 


TRACTION FARMINC- 



figure 40A. 
Cotton Carbureter, 

















































































































































































































































THE CARBURETER OR MIXER 


89 


post located on and insulated from the valve-handle and 
closes the circuit with the insulated electrode located in 
the pocket which has been set in communication with the 
combustion chamber. 

The tubes extending from the pockets shown in Figure 
40A serve to receive any incombustible gas that may 
have been retained in the pockets after exhaust. 

It will readily be understood that a defective plug 
can be cut out and a new one set in operation almost in¬ 
stantaneously while the engine is running and the de¬ 
fective one taken out and repaired. 

In this device ignition first takes place in a pocket 
which causes an intense blast of flames to pass through 
the combustion chamber resulting in the bulk of the gases 
being broken up very quickly and a resulting rapid raise 
of the combustion line and consequently higher M. E. P. 
Jump spark, magnetic arc, or make-and-break systems 
may be used therewith. 

Adjustment of the Carbureter .—On some carbureters 
there is no gasoline adjustment and one or two for the 
air; on others there is one or more for the gasoline and 
possibly two for the air. The first step in the adjust¬ 
ment is to see that the gasoline is properly fed and the 
action of the float and its valve are corrected, after which 
the needle points may be opened (if of the adjustable 
needle point type) to some point that might suggest it¬ 
self as being near enough to get the engine started. If 
the carbureter is of the fixed spray nozzle type the air 
valves should be adjusted to some point that might sug¬ 
gest itself for starting. To overcome this defective ad¬ 
justment it is a good plan to prime the engine through 
its priming cup, or at the carbureter by means of the 
primer, found on most carbureters. It will generally be 


90 


TRACTION FARMING 


found that the engine will start readily, after which one 
can in a very short time adjust the carbureter to a posi¬ 
tion that the engine will continue running. 

Adjusting the engine for slow running without load 
should be done by closing the throttle valve and retard¬ 
ing the spark which is the slow operating position for 
all engines. The carbureter now can be very easily ad¬ 
justed to the best efficiency for this throttled condition 
by increasing or decreasing the fuel supply by the various 
methods found in different carbureters. Keep changing 
the adjustment of the fuel until the position is found 
where the engine seemingly has the best efficiency, and 
the air valve or valves are free from action, or in other 
words all the air passing into the carbureter should pass 
through the fixed air inlet. By so doing, the air valve 
adjustments are reserved for higher speed running. This 
condition gives the carbureter a greater range in its ac¬ 
tion, thus adding to the flexibility and power of the en¬ 
gine. 

Next test the engine for higher speed without load 
to ascertain if the carbureter is adjusted for speed. 
Leaving the spark in its retarded position open 
the throttle and note the action of the engine. If the 
engine seems to choke or fill with gas it is an indication 
that the gas is too rich and should be rectified by ad¬ 
mitting more air through the air valve. This adjust¬ 
ment is accomplished by reducing the spring tension on 
the air valve thus giving it a freer action which increases 
the area of the opening, allowing more air to enter. 

In case of a carbureter with a mechanically operated 
needle point, which operates in unison with the throttle, 
this choking condition can be overcome by reducing its 
action, thus cutting off the supply of gasoline when the j 


91 


the carbureter or mixer 

throttle is opened. The other extreme when opening 
the throttle should be too lean a mixture or the lack of 
gasoline. This condition would indicate itself by back- 
filing or snapping at the mouth of the carbureter. Ad¬ 
justments to overcome this condition are obtained by 
simply reversing, the aforesaid methods of adjustments 
for too rich a mixture. If the back-firing is not serious 
it is possible to overcome it by advancing the spark and 
again opening the throttle, which shows that the car¬ 
bureter is near its correct adjustment. 

The best guidance while adjusting carbureters is to 

keep them adjusted as close to a back-firing condition as 
possible. 

If after the adjustments are all made, and an occasional 
back-fire is present at all speeds, it indicates that the 
carbureter is properly adjusted throughout its range, and 
the back-firing condition can be overcome by the ad¬ 
dition of a trifle more gasoline, which will affect the 
mixture at any position of the throttle. 

In a carbureter with no needle valve or gasoline ad¬ 
justment there is always a slow speed air adjustment 
and one or more adjustments for high speeds. In this 
case see that no air can enter through the high speed 
inlet on low speed, then adjust this low speed until the 
motor runs smoothly and evenly. When the low speed 
adjustment is correct open the throttle a little and ad¬ 
just the second air intake until the engine runs properly; 
then the third, if there is one. The air should be ad¬ 
justed so that the engine will neither choke nor back-fire 
when the throttle is opened suddenly. 

In the case of a carbureter having two or more needle 
valves, the method of procedure for adjusting is prac¬ 
tically the same as that just described. All that is nec- 


92 


TRACTION FARMING 


essary to do is to adjust the slow speed needle valve and 
the slow speed air. When the engine works all right at 
slow speed the throttle should be opened a little wider, 
when the second needle valve and the second air intake 
may be adjusted. 




CHAPTER XI. 
modern ignition. 

Of all the ills to which the gas engine falls heir, it is 
safe to say that more of them can be laid to ignition 
. trouble than any other cause. This trouble is not all 
from poor ignition outfits, as a large percentage of it 
can be laid to the incompetency of the engine operator. 

The field for the use of gasoline engines has developed 
so widely that the engines are being handled now, in a 
great many instances, by men whose interests lie in other 
directions and who have not the time and opportunity 
to make a special study of the engine and its accessories. 
Engines are so constructed throughout that the only nec¬ 
essary attention is an occasional oiling, and some atten¬ 
tion to the ignition system. The ignition system is now 
the only part of the equipment that is sure to need some 
attention at times. This is due to the fact that batteries 
are used as a source of current and since the battery en- 

ergy finally becomes exhausted, renewals have to be 
made. 

When the battery becomes weak, it is customary to 
adjust the spark coil to compensate for the lower voltage 
and this means that when a new battery is installed, un¬ 
less the adjustment is lightened again, the coil is drawing 
too much current. This runs the battery down more rap¬ 
idly than is necessary and causes burning of the contact 
points on the coil. 


93 





94 TRACTION FARMING 

Auburn Spark Plug .—The Auburn ignition spark plug 
No. 1, see Figure 41, is a mica plug only and made in 



FIGURE 41. FIGURE 42. 


all sizes, while Auburn ignition spark plug No. 2, Figure 
42, is made in porcelain or mica. These plugs represent 
the highest art of spark plug manufacture and are guar¬ 
anteed in every particular. 

An illustration, Figure 43, is also shown of the Au¬ 
burn ignition timer which is made for one, two, three or 
four-cylinder engines. 'The contact and roller of this 
timer are made of high grade, imported non-magnetic 
steel. It has self-lubricating bearings and is guaranteed 
not to heat. \ 


















MODERN IGNITION 95 

Ignition Mechanism.—A form of ignition mechanism 
used in connection with the primary make and break sys¬ 
tem of electrical ignition is illustrated in Figure 44. 
Upon the operating rod being moved to the left, the pawl, 
carried by the upper arm of the bell-crank lever, forces 



FIGURE 43. 

' 

j downward the small trigger carried upon the outer end 
1 ^ le movable electrode and in this manner passes by it. 
Upon the return stroke of the operating rod the upper 
end of the pawl engages with the trigger, bringing the 
contact-points of the movable and fixed electrode together 
for a short period of time. A further movement of the 
operating rod in the same direction causes the trigger to 
be released from contact with the pawl. This action 
causes the contact-points of the electrodes to suddenly 

















96 


TRACTION FARMING 


fly apart and a spark or arc is produced between them. 

Reason for Advancing Point of Ignition .—It may be 
well to explain, without entering into theoretical details, 
that when an engine is running at normal speed the igni¬ 
tion mechanism is so set that ignition takes place slightly 



FIGURE 44. 

Ignition Mechanism for Use in Connection with a Primary 

Make and Break Spark. 

before the piston reaches the end of its compression 
stroke. 

If the charge is fired at or after the end of the com¬ 
pression stroke, the average pressure on the piston, and 
consequently the power, is decreased in proportion. 
Therefore to ensure perfect combustion with a maximum 
pressure at the commencement of the explosion stroke, 
the point of ignition must be earlier, and advance as 
the speed increases. 

Spark Coils and Magnetos .—The Pfanstiehl coil, j 
shown in Figure 45, is so constructed as to eliminate ( 
any chance of battery or coil trouble in the hands of in¬ 
experienced users. This feature is principally due to the • 
vibrator, the tension of which is controlled by a sep- 























MODERN IGNITION 97 

arate coil spring, which has a limited movement so that 
the tension cannot exceed an amount necessary to produce 
a good spark for a high compression engine. It is im¬ 
possible to make these coils draw more than three-fourths 
of an ampere on a dead short circuit, with the vibrator 
working, and on the timer of an ordinary engine they 
will draw from 0.1 to 0.25 of an ampere. This means 
that the maximum service will always be obtained from 
the dry cells and that the points will not burn excessively. 



FIGURE 45. 


The contact points are composed of the highest qual¬ 
ity of platinum iridium alloy that it is practicable to work 
and this high quality, combined with the fact that the 
points are never changed in their relation to each other 
by adjustment, insures a minimum of trouble from this 
cause. The Pfanstiehl coils are further characterized by 
the patented method of winding, by which the secondary 
is made up of pancake sections, and these sections are 
assembled over the primary and core. This method of 







98 


TRACTION FARMING 


winding is absolutely necessary in large coils for X Ray 
and wireless work, as it insures perfect insulation and 
greatly increases the efficiency of the coil. It has not 
been used in ignition coils until within recent years on 
account of the expense involved, but due to the Pfan- 
stiehl special method of construction, this winding can 
be used without adding materially to the cost of the coil, j 



FIGURE 46. 

Figure 46 shows the Pfanstiehl Junior magneto fot 
jump spark engines, in which the same idea of trouble 
proof construction has been carried out. This magneto 
may be either friction, belt or gear driven and should be 
run from three to five times engine speed. There are no 
moving wires or contacts of any kind, no brushes and 
in fact, the only revolving part is a block of laminated 









MODERN IGNITION 


99 


magnetic iron, perfectly balanced, so' that the magneto 
will run at practically any speed without injury. The 
coil is self-contained and furnished with the magneto. 
This insures the perfect working of the entire sytem 
and greatly simplifies the wiring. As may be seen from 
the illustration, the coil is placed under the arch of the 
magnets and securely fastened and only three wires are 
used m the whole wiring system, one to the spark plug, 
one to the ground and one to the timer. This magneto 
will start any engine that can be turned over by hand 
and the use of batteries is entirely eliminated. No 
changes in the engine are necessary as it is used in con¬ 
nection with the timer already on the engine. The mag¬ 
neto works just as well in cold or rainy weather- as it 
does in warm weather and thereby insures starting under 
all conditions. 

The bearings are very large and the oiling arrange¬ 
ment is positive and will operate under all conditions. As 
an extra precaution, terminals are placed on the coil so 
that batteries may be used with it in case of emergencies, 
or for starting very large engines that cannot be turned 
over by hand. The vibrator on the coil of this magneto 
is covered by a metal cap, vvhich can be removed in case 
an adjustment is necessary. This adjustment will only 
be necessary, however, on an engine where the condi¬ 
tions are very unusual and when once made is perma¬ 
nent. 

Timing the Magneto .—The accurate timing of a mag¬ 
neto is an important factor in the efficient operation of 
gas engines, and must be studied with considerable care. 

No cut and dried rule can be established for timiner, 

<T> " 

inasmuch as the ignition point varies according to peculi¬ 
arities and characteristics of the individual engine. 





100 


TRACTION FARMING 


It has been stated that the correct point of ignition is 
Y of the engine stroke; thus, for an engine of 5-in. 
stroke, the ignition advance should be Y in. before top 
dead center. 

It is quite true that some engines of 5-in. stroke re¬ 
quire an advance of Y i n -> but it is equally true that 
with other 5-in. stroke engines an advance of Y ^ n - 
would be quite incorrect. 

If an engine is so constructed that the combustion 
space is compact, the required advance would be con¬ 
siderably less than the proper advance for an engine in 
which the combustion space is considerably extended. 

The normal speed of the engine is one of the great 
factors in establishing the ignition point, for it goes 
without saying that a far greater advance is required for 
an engine running at 1,200 r.p.m. than for an engine 
running at 600. 

Another factor that must be considered is the stroke 
of the engine, for the longer the stroke the greater must 
be the advance, other conditions being equal. Thus, an 
engine of 5-in. bore and 7-in. stroke will require a greater 
ignition advance than an engine of 5-in. bore and only 
5-in. stroke. 

Another consideration will be the location of the spark 
plug. If this is located in the center of the combustion 
space, and with its point projecting into the mixture, a 
small advance will be required, whereas if the plug is 
located on one side of the combustion space and is pos¬ 
sibly pocketed, the advance required will be far greater. 

The exact advance for maximum efficiency can only 
be determined by experiment. 

In timing a magneto of the usual rotating armature , 
type, fair all-around results may be obtained by so set- 



MODERN IGNITION 


101 


ting it that in the full retard position it gives its spark 
&t r the i ns tant when the piston is at top dead center. 
Whether or not the advance position will be found cor¬ 
rect can only be determined by trial, and if it is found 
not to be so the relation of the armature to the crank¬ 
shaft can be altered in accordance with carefully noted 
tests until the results are satisfactory. 

Another statement that is made is that if a user of an 
engine desires to have it throttled down to a very low 
speed, the spark plug points should be opened up until 
they are fully 1/16 in. apart. 

This statement is exactly contrary to the actual con¬ 
ditions. When a magneto runs at slow speed, as will 
be the case when the engine is throttled down, it does 
not produce a current of as high a voltage as will be 
the case when it operates at increased speed, and in 
consequence the current will not be able to jump across 
as wide a spark gap. Thus if it is desired to throttle an 
engine down low, the spark plug gap must be much 
smaller than is required for higher speeds. For high 
tension magneto ignition 1/50 in. spark gap will give 
correct results for all normal operating speeds. Engine 
characteristics have some influence on the size of the 
spark gap, but in no case should this gap be greater 
than 1/32 in. 

Delco Ignition System .—The Dayton Engineering Lab¬ 
oratories Company, of Dayton, Ohio, have placed on the 
market a novel battery ignition system. In order to sim¬ 
plify the wiring, the different parts are combined into a 
compact unit, of the same outward appearance as a coil 
box, with a throw-over switch on the outside of the box. 
This arrangement, known as Model 1, is designed to be 
secured to the dash in place of the regular coil. 







102 


TRACTION FARMING 


The Delco System No. 2 differs from No. Tin that it 
is built in three units, a switch mounted on the dash, a 
coil box containing a non-vibrating coil for each engine j 
cylinder, mounted on the cylinders, and a circuit breaker 
(or controlling relay), which is mounted on the motor 
side of the dash. 

A sectional view of the circuit breaker and high ten- 
sion distributor is shown in Figure 47. The distributor 
proper is made of hard rubber with a metal housing in 
which are mounted also the primary connection, the dis- ! 
tributor shaft and the advance lever. The housing is 
finished and flanged on the bottom so as to be readily 
fitted to any motor. The distributor shaft is mounted 
upon two large size ball bearings, the centers of which 
are 1^4 ins. apart. For cleaning or adjusting, the dis¬ 
tributor head and disc may be easily removed, the head 
being held in place by spring clips. 

The primary contact consists of an arm A, which is 
moved outwardly against the action of the coil spring B 
by a four-lobed cam C. The contact arm is made up 
of three parts, viz., a hub upon which is mounted the 
bent arm D, made of steel and hardened, and the con¬ 
tact spring E. This spring is set with an initial tension 
which holds its outer end against the stop F of the steel 
arm. The contact spring carries a platinum contact 
which makes connection with a similar point at G on the 
contact screw H. The relation of the two points is such 
that they come together when the arm has moved about j 
one-half of its full throw, the tension in the contact t 
spring insuring a positive pressure at the contact points. r 

The movement of the arm is limited by a stop I to- ; 
ward which the arm is normally drawn by the coil spring 
B. This spring is very light and is fastened to the arm ( 





modern ignition 


103 


close to its pivot. The short movement of the spring 
allows very high speeds on account of the absence of 



inertia. The four-lobed cam is so formed as to impart 
the full movement to the arm in a small fraction of one 
revolution, thus avoiding any serious lag in moving 
parts, or variation due to adjustment. 

In the high tension distributor, the current from the 
coil in introduced at the central terminal J, which pro- 























































































104 


TRACTION FARMING 


jects into the chamber as shown at K. Upon the disc 
L is mounted a steel brush M, which is connected to the 
center terminal by a bar N. In operation the brush, 
being normally held against the head by a light spring, 
makes contact with the outer terminals successively and 
at the instant the contacts are closed in the primary cir¬ 
cuit. It is claimed that there is little arcing in the dis¬ 
tributor, and the pressure upon the terminals is very 
light, so that the wear on the brush is reduced to the 
minimum. The flange on the disc projecting into the 
grove in the distributor head effectively insulates the 
terminals from the housing and other points to which 
the spark might jump. 

The spark control is effected by means of a spiral slot 
in the distributor sleeve, upon which the four-lobed cam 
is rigidly mounted. A bronze ring, which is slidably 
mounted upon the sleeve, carries a pin which passes 
through the spiral slots. A forked yoke, carrying two 
pins which co-act with the groove in the ring is rigidly 
mounted upon a shaft, to which the timer lever is con¬ 
nected. The rocking of the yoke by means of the timer 
lever causes the ring to slide along the sleeves, the spiral 
slots in the sleeve causing it to rotate, thus changing the 
relation between the four-lobed cam and the engine shaft 
as desired. 

Battery Ignition—Dry Batteries .—A dry cell battery 
is a chemical and mechanical combination, and a power 
unit within itself, and consequently has certain limits to 
its capacity to generate current. Chemicals are always a 
rather delicate proposition to handle, and to give best 
service it is unnecessary to say that dry cells should first 
be properly constructed, with proper proportion of chem¬ 
ical ingredients used. 


1 









' 


e 


1 


f 

e 


MODERN IGNITION 105 

The outer cup is made of zinc, and acts as the positive 
e ectrode. Over it is slipped a strawboard tube. The 
o ject is to prevent the zinc of two cells from touching 
each other so as to establish a wrong connection. The 
negative electrode is a plate of carbon. This is placed 
m the center of the zinc, and is so supported as not to 
touch it in any place. Carbon and zinc both carry bind¬ 
ing posts. The filling varies. The following is used in 
the Burnley cell: 


A wooden plunger or template, somewhat larger than 
the carbon, is inserted, and the following mixture intro- 

*1 ^ /> /'i m ^ ^ A 


duced: Ammonium chloride, zinc chloride, 1 part of 
each, plaster of Paris, 3 parts, flour 0.87 parts, water 2 
parts. After this has set a little the wooden template is 
withdrawn, the carbon is inserted in the cavity left by 


its withdrawal, and the space left unfilled is filled with 
the following mixture: Ammonium chloride, zinc chlor¬ 


ide, manganese binoxide, granulated carbon, flour, 1 part 


of each, plaster 3 parts, water 2 parts. The electromo¬ 
tive force of this cell is 1.4 volts, its resistance 0.3 ohm. 
The Gassner dry cell has as negative element a cyl¬ 


inder made of a mixture of carbon and manganese di¬ 
oxide. The filling composition is as follows: Zinc oxide 


ammonium chloride, and zinc chloride, 1 part each, plas¬ 
ter of Paris 3 parts, water 2 parts. 

For the Meserole dry battery, there are mixed the 
following: Graphite, slacked lime, arsenious acid, and 
glucose or dexti ine, 1 part each, carbon and manganese 
binoxide, 3 parts each. The mixture is finely pulverized 
and rubbed up in a saturated solution of ammonium 
chloride and sodium chloride (common salt) with one- 
tenth its volume of a solution of mercury chloride and 
an equal volume of hydrochloric acid. These constitu- 






106 


TRACTION FARMING 


ents are intimately mixed and poured into the zinc cup. 

Dry batteries are sealed with pitch. A hole is some¬ 
times left for the escape of gas. 

Placing Cells .—Great care should be exercised when 
placing dry cells into the battery box. A good method 
is to proceed as follows: Take each cell and roll it up, 
cardboard and all, in a long strip of heavy manila wrap¬ 
ping paper, so that it is covered with about half a dozen 
thicknesses. The paper can be held in place by a few 
wrappings of insulating tape. Cut the paper about an 
inch or so longer at either end than the full length of 
the cell, so that the ends of the paper wrapper can be 
turned in. Before doing the latter, however, the cells 
should be connected and each terminal wrapped with a 
few layers of insulating tape. The connecting wires 
should be at least No. 14 gauge, rubber covered, and 
when they are subject to excessive jarring, flexible wire 
with lock nuts on the cells should be used. Wiring 
should be installed with knobs and cleats, such as are 
used in electric light installation, and the wires should 
not come in contact with any surface except its supports. 

The various methods of connecting dry cells for gas 
engine ignition are explained under the heading “Bat¬ 
tery Output,” and plainly illustrated by Figures 50 to 53. 

Arrangement of Cells .—The usual way to arrange a 
number of cells to form a battery for ignition purposes, 
is what is called a series, that is, the zinc from one cell 
is connected to the carbon of the next one and so on. 
One cell is arranged directly behind the other in this ar¬ 
rangement and the current is compelled to pass through 
all of the cells. 

Another method of arranging cells in a battery is to 
connect all of the zincs together and all of the carbons 











MODERN IGNITION 


107 


together. This amounts to the same thing as making 
one large cell having a zinc as large as the sum of all 
the zincs and a carbon plate whose area is equal to the 
sum of all the carbons. This method of connecting is 
called connecting in parallel. 

When not in use, and also if possible when in use, dry 
cells should be kept in a cool dry place, away from ex¬ 
cessive dust and dirt, and during the term of hot sum¬ 
mer months care should be taken that the sun does not 
shine directly on them, for the reason that, owing to the 
peculiarity of the chemicals, they become exceedingly ac¬ 
tive at high temperature, and under such conditions oc¬ 
casionally moisture will appear around the tops, thus 
short-circuiting the whole set. Water, oil drippings and 
wet cases should be carefully avoided. 

Most, if not all, of the dissatisfaction with dry batter¬ 
ies for ignition work has arisen not because of any in¬ 
herent defect in the battery, but because of the unfor¬ 
tunate selection of a battery entirely inadequate for the 
duty forced upon it. If we insert a low reading ampere 
meter in the battery circuit of a gas engine while in 
operation, a current flow of .3-.5 ampere will be indi¬ 
cated. This does not represent the actual demand made 
on the battery; this current drain is actually a series 
of discharges from the battery, averaging about 4 am¬ 
peres each. Therefore, when a b'attery reaches a point 
when it will no longer force this amount of current 
(about 4 amperes) through the coil it should be replaced 

by a new one. 

Storage Batteries .—The ordinary 6-volt, 60 ampere- 
hour storage battery is composed of three individual cells, 
the elements of which are connected up in series. Each 
cell usually consists of a hard-rubber jar, containing one 







108 


traction farming 


E^omT a f, tWO P0SitiVe eIemen ‘ S ’ which me 

-cad, and honey-combed, or cast in a “grid” 

consisting !< “« ««™l 

lead red lea n T \ * ° f a mixture of oxide of 

( ead) for the negative elements and litheraee 

(ye ow- ead) for the positive elements mixed with di- 

ItJ" , Tl « arc separated 

p evented from touching each other, within the cell bv 

a perforated sheet of hard-rubber, or other mean ’ al¬ 
lowing of a free circulation of the electrolyte 

of^bhuric r0ly M ?r de UP ° f 3 ten P er «nt solution 

or Clean filter d • “ 7 P Ure ) a ” d Stilled water, 

or clean filtered ram water. The acid should be poured 

m a fine stream into the water, when making up the solu- 

X “X'T'r Wi,h * «*■ or cL„ ”„od 

1 21 'or ll? (r’" y , " SI> ' CifiC «■■“•>■ l>as reached 

the acid and" h i rapWIy Upon addin S 

till the V? hydrometer reading should not be taken 

till the solution cools. Great care should be exercised in 
adding the acid to the water to prevent slopp.ng-neV r 

pour the water into the acid-and never place fhe sob 
ti°n m the cells while hot. 

The density of the electrolyte in a fully charged cell 

should never be over 1 28 tn i o _ . , s ceu 

of the densitv ; c „ ' , 3nd w h e n reduction 

ie dens ty is necessary, the water should be added a 

m e at a time, and the solution thoroughly amtated so 

s o get a uniform density throughout the solution A1 

ways correct the density after the battery has bee"'i 

*:2tr^r dard f r ^ battery M^er j 

tests. For the portable types of storage batteries 
a small twenty-five cent syringe with rubber bulb and 

to diaw the solution out of the small vent, or filler 



MODERN IGNITION 


109 


openings, and also to force water into and agitate the 
solution. 

Even if standard electrolyte is furnished with the bat¬ 
tery, it becomes necessary in time to reduce or build up 
the density, so as to keep it in the most efficient condi¬ 
tion. A new storage battery, especially of the portable 
type, will stand a great deal of abuse without showing 
any immediate apparent loss of efficiency, but abuse, with 
this as with anything else, eventually means ruin. 

Usually the details of testing the solution, or electro¬ 
lyte, as it is termed, is left to the person who does the 
recharging and who, frequently, is inexperienced and 
incompetent to intelligently perform the task. If the 
battery were taken to a recharging station where a spe¬ 
cialty of this work is made, less trouble would be expe¬ 
rienced. However, more frequently, the owner does not 
have access to such facilities, especially in the rural dis¬ 
tricts, and must depend upon the local, or nearby elec¬ 
tric lighting plant for this service. 

As some forms of storage battery ignition systems are 
equipped with a low voltage direct current dynamo or 
magneto, which is connected to the battery so as to keep 
it in a fully charged condition, the owner does not have 
to contend with the incompetency or carelessness of out¬ 
siders ; however, instances are encountered in cases of 
this kind where the electrolyte had been permitted to 
evaporate almost entirely, thus rendering the battery 
useless. Whatever form or type of storage battery is 
used, the plates, or elements should always be kept im¬ 
mersed in the solution, preventing exposure of the plates 
to the air, for when the plates are exposed they not only 
sulphate rapidly, but the decreased area of plate surface 
exposed to the chemical action of the solution, reduces 





110 


TRACTION - FARMING 


^Charging Storage Batteries.-Instructions, relative to 
c largmg and care, are invariably furnished the purchaser 

the user ^ ^ ** d0SeI ^ f °M°wed by 

When the battery has been discharged, the density de- 
creases owing to the absorption of the sulphuric acfd by 

chlJ e Tt h ° r a"’ Wh6n fU " y Char ^ d ’ or ^ing • 

arged, the density increases, because of the reversal of 
this operation—that is, the acid is thrown back into the 
so ution, and this variation is directly proportional to 

limits ^ ° r diSCharge ’ betWeen certa ' n 

throJeha c^ g ^ ° r tHe nUmb6r ° f affl P eres Passed 
exceed that rato r °* shoU,d ^ver 

stamped on to , “ the InStructions > apd usually 

stamped on the name-plate. This rate ordinarily is from 

5 to 6 amperes for a 60 amp.hr. battery, and 3 to 4 am 

Thlt\l2r P 1 hr - battery- HenCe * WOUld -quire 

rate or to ho 7 ^ " 6 ° amp - hr - ceI1 at a 5 ampere 
’. ° s at a 6 ampere rate and so on. If this 

rate is exceeded slightly sav i o . 1 tnis 

he w f , 7 1 ° r 2 am peres, it should 

be but for a short period, as continued overcharge is 
injurious as well as wasteful arging IS 

An exhausted cell, charged at a normal rate for fiw 
mbk of r h ° W 3 n ° rmal voIta & e > but it will be inca- 

the vita ae m ng T 1 CUrrent ’ ^ the CUrrent is 

Ch m f t- The v °bage of a healthy storaee cell 
should be from 2.02 to 2.10 volts when fully charged 

and from 1.98 to 2.00 volts when discharged to a faf ’ 

. • Excessive discharging will result in the same 

trouble as excessive charging and evenmto T 

battery. a eventuaI ty rum the 



MODERN IGNITION 


111 


The caps, used in covering the filler openings, should 
be removed when charging, and replaced when discharg¬ 
ing to exclude all dust and dirt. No metallic or con¬ 
ducting element should ever be inserted in these open¬ 
ings. 

Capacity .—The capacity of a storage battery expressed 
as 40 or 60 amp.hr. means literally the ability of that 
battery, when fully charged, and in normal condition, to 
deliver approximately one ampere for forty or sixty 
hours, as the case may be, but does not imply that a 
current of forty or sixty amperes may be discharged for 
one hour. The lower the rate of discharge, the greater 
the length of time the battery will hold up, and the 
greater the discharge, necessarily the shorter its life. 

Testing .—The practice of testing a storage battery to 
determine'whether or not it is charged, by momentaiily 
completely short-circuiting its terminals to observe the 
spark, is, to say the least, misleading. A cell may be 
so nearly exhausted that its voltage would not force 
enough current through the resistance of an ignition 
circuit to “spark” an engine, and yet, if its terminals 
were short-circuited momentarily, a vigorous spark 
would result. The practice is injurious to the battery, 
and it does not have a fair show with this kind of 
treatment. 

An increase of from 30 to 50 degrees in the density, 
with a corresponding rise in voltage, of say ten to 
fourteen hundredths of a volt, denotes a charged con¬ 
dition, while a decrease of these values proportionately 
denotes a discharged condition. Care should be exer¬ 
cised in recharging, to see that the positive wire from 
the source of supply is connected to the positive terminal 
of the battery, and the negative wire to the negative 






112 


traction farming 


ter^eceivit^ T" ^ r6Sult in the ba ‘‘ 

trouble It iAf C large m the reverse directi °« and cause 

is grounded and° which terminal 

g unded, and which connected to battery side of coil 

ssaa&sr po " ,! '* « s 

liof should”e k •tld Uld the'scTu- 

Never allow iZ u ff ay ’ free from grease and dirt. 
INever allow the battery to remain idle and uncharged 

Reference has already been made to the specific 

Sw'aTer r Sf' '■““** “ ™>P.rri £ 

instrument Mro”2. “ ^ “ 

v,Z \ thC ,?* ° f the com P Iete discharge the specific 

LL r E ,” ,hr,iT;to m 1IS - If °"'y half 

*> ea ’ tnen about 1.20. If only one-quarter 1 125 
or three-quarters, 1.175, so that one may arrange a 
scale whereby the amount of charge used or that re 
mainmg m the cells, may be estimated " 

readb"o? a i r i5 n& th \ SPeCific gravity wi » rise from its 

dicates a short circuit, and the cell has not ,-T • ’ ,i • 
charge t„ „„„ , . nas not received its 

* t In , CaSes wbere the specific gravity comes up 

o 1.25 at the end of its charge, but falls to a lower 

figure during a period of idleness or standing for say 




MODERN IGNITION 


113 


24 or 48 hours, also indicates a short circuit, or else 
local action (or internal discharge), due to contamina¬ 
tion of the electrolyte by some impurity. 

The plates should always be kept covered with their 
electrolyte, or acid, because if they are exposed or out 
of the liquid, a sulphation occurs of such a nature as to 
damage the plates irreparably, besides which the exposed 
surfaces are inactive and useless. 

Sulphuric acid should never be added to the cells to 
compensate loss, unless such loss has been caused by 
a spilling of the acid, and then first ascertain the specific 
gravity of the acid remaining in the cells and make up 
with diluted acid of the corresponding specific gravity- 
till the plates are again covered. In all cases of adding 
to, or compensating evaporation losses (except as above 
stated) nothing should be used but pure distilled water,, 
and absolutely pure and clean acid. A healthy battery 
used continuously, should not require an addition of 

acid more than once a week. 

It is bad practice to put a wire across the positive 
and negative terminals for the purpose of testing to 
see if there is a spark. It is almost a dead short circuit 
and is very detrimental to the cell owing to the heavy 
current passing, even though it be for only a few sec- 
i onds of time. In order to ascertain the strength of 
current it is best to use a small pocket voltmeter, reading 
from 0 to 3 volts. 

Fluid Batteries .—Although the fluid primary cell is 
very useful in stationary work, it cannot very well be 
used on traction engines, owing to the liability of the 
liquid electrolyte to spill or slop over. It can, however, 
be utilized for charging small storage batteries that are 
used for ignition purposes on traction engines in lo- 






114 


TRACTION FARMING 


caities where there is no incandescent light circuit at 
hand, or if the only current available is of the alternating 
tjpe. The voltage of a fluid battery to be used for 
charging a storage battery should exceed the voltage of 
the storage battery by at least 30 per cent. Primary 
batteries of the open circuit type, such as salammoniac 
ce s are useless for charging purposes. Only batteries 

able 16 C ° Sed CircUlt 0r constant current type are suit- 

A simple and inexpensive form of closed circuit bat- 
tery for charging purposes is the single liquid type, in 
w nch zinc and carbon electrodes are immersed in a 20 
pei cent solution of sulphuric acid and water with ni- 
1 ate of soda as the depolarizing agent. For charging a 
4-volt storage battery four such cells are required 
while for a 6-volt storage battery six cells will be necel 

sary for a proper charge. This form of fluid battery 
has a voltage of 1.75 volts per cell. ^ 

a J he r[. icles necessar y for a complete charging outfit 
e as follows: One small pocket ammeter reading up 

or rhX eS Vho ne tW Tr SWitCH ’ ° ne resis ‘-e co-d 
or rheostat (home-made), one set of closed-circuit 

B P o. ° s f P—y batteries and about 25 ft. 0 f n” 
lor .h« ,oS ° r K ““ «wr wire 

The method of connecting the primary batteries re 

srir m T and Jkth is 

battery shotdd always be comi^tiUr £ S 

forms of batteries. If the nolaritv <u J P rimar y 
the storage battery are not indicated on theTase' by 



MODERN IGNITION 


115 


the and — signs, which represent positive and nega¬ 
tive respectively, their polarity may be readily ascer¬ 
tained by means of a piece of moistened litmus paper 
(paper soaked in a solution of iodide of starch.) Place 
the piece of moistened litmus paper on a board or other 
non-conducting material and bring the wires from the 
storage battery terminals into contact with opposite ends 
of the paper for a few seconds. One end of the paper 
will turn red, this will be the end next to the wire con¬ 
nected with the negative pole of the storage battery. 

The resistance coil or rheostat may be made very 
easily as follows: Take a piece of hard wood, 3 ms. 
sq. and 15 ins. long, and turn down about 13>4 ins. of 
its length to a diameter of 2)4 ins. as shown in Figure 
48. Upon this turned portion cut with a round-nose 
tool a groove or thread one-sixteenth of an inch deep 
with 8 threads to the inch. 

In this groove wind about 50 ft. of No. 16 B. & S. 
gauge bare soft iron wire, and connect with a bar and 
sliding contact as shown in Figure 48. To charge the 
storage battery, move the sliding contact to the rig t 
until all the resistance is in use, then move the switch 
finger to the point on the left and adjust the sliding con 
tact by moving it to the left until the ammeter shows 
3 amperes. Moving the switch finger to the right wi 
put the battery in the circuit for charging, and the slid¬ 
ing contact should again be adjusted until the ammeter 
shows 3 amperes. The sliding contact should be ad¬ 
justed from time to time to keep the charging current 
at 3 amperes. Should the storage battery be of 12 am¬ 
pere hour capacity, it will require 4 hours tml ® -° 
properly charge it, if 18 ampere hour capacity, the time 
required to charge it will be 6 hours. The ampere hour 









116 


TRACTION FARMING 




figure 48. 





































































































MODERN IGNITION 


117 


capacity of the storage battery, divided by the amperes 
of the charging current, will give the number of hours 
required to fully charge the battery when exhausted. 

After the storage battery is fully charged the elec¬ 
trodes should be lifted out of the solution as shown in 
Figure 48, by means of the cover to which they are at- 



FIGURE 49. 

tached as shown, and left there until the battery is again 
required for use. 

Box Coil Connection .—The connections on the inside 
of the box of an ordinary spark coil, are frequently 
something of a puzzle to the uninitiated, for upon open¬ 
ing an ordinary spark coil, all that the investigator finds 
is a box full of wax and if he wants to find out how 
it is connected up, it is necessary for him to melt out 
this wax, which operation commonly ruins the coil, un¬ 
less he is skillful enough to replace it and replace the 
parts correctly. In Figure 49 everything is shown from 





























118 


TRACTION FARMING 


t e engine and battery to the wiring circuit, both in- 
side and outside the coil box, and by following these 
through carefully, one can get a good idea of the con¬ 
nections. Starting from the positive side of the bat- 
teiy, the current flows up to the switch into the ground 
connections of the engine and to the center contact of 
the timer; from this it goes to the insulated contact as 
soon as the tuner turns around into position to make 
this connection. From here it goes to the binding posts 
on the front of the coil, which is usually marked “In- 

terrupter” or “Int.’ and then disappears in the interior 
of the box. 


W hen it goes inside of the box, it either goes first to 
he vibrator or to the primary winding. It does not 
make any difference which of these it goes to first- the 
drawing shows it passing to the primary winding which 
■s a coarse wire, usually of about No. 18 to No. 20 B & 

th/sT T y , WOl T d ' n tW ° kyers > thou S h in some of 
the shorter and smaller coils it is wound in three. After 

passing through the various convolutions of the winding 

it goes to the vibrator; through the contacts of the vt 

mXl'tr" 0 th m bmding P ° St Which “ usually 

thetalrv th y T ^ hom it goes back to 
the battery thus completing its circuit 

malefhow fT" C ™-~ E ^y electric current no 
ma ter how it is generated, must complete its circuit- 

that is it must go back to its starting point. If it is "oi 

possible for it to go back to its starting point the cur 

rent does not flow, though in the case of some extremely 

high tension currents, such as the secondary c^em 

which is generated in the spark coil and which is show ' 

} smaller winding outside of the insulated tuh 
c„™„ «» E „ bad, 



MODERN IGNITION 


119 


circuit has so much resistance, only a small portion can 
go back. The rest of the energy of the coil is dissipated 
or used up in forcing this small portion back. \\ hen 
the secondary terminals of the coil are brought close 
together, this current passing back through the air can 
be readily seen in the form of a spark and this spark 
is what is used for ignition purposes, but if the spark¬ 
ing terminals are separated by too great a distance the 
visible spark no longer passes and in the bright light 
no action can be seen, but if the coil is taken into a 
dark room and operated there, a thin bluish mist will be 
seen radiating in all directions from the exposed portions 
of the secondary circuit. The greatest part of this 
bluish light will stream toward the nearest portions of 
the secondary circuit which are of the opposite potential, 
or in other words, they will try to go back to the nearest 
part of the other end of the coil. In order to afford an 
easy path back from the end of the spark plug and 
avoid wiring, one end of the secondary is usually con¬ 
nected to one end of the primary winding. The rea¬ 
son for this can be easily seen by following out the 
wires in Figure 49. Starting from the secondary bind¬ 
ing post A the current is generated in the secondary 
winding of the coil between post A and B; it passes 
up to the insulated portions of the plug down through it, 
and jumps across to the grounded side and from here 
it must go back to the binding post A as stated above. 
In order that it may go back easily, binding post A 
is connected to the battery binding post and through 
the battery binding post and connections to the metal 
part of the engine. The battery does not affect the 
secondary current in any way, so that it can pass through 
it easily; if however, as sometimes happens, this binding 





120 


traction farming 


post A is not connected to the battery binding posts 
and is left entirely free so that it does not connect with 
anything then the current has a much more difficult 
task before it in order to get back to the post A. Some 
o it wi be dissipated in the air from the engine bed 
and frame, but more of it will pass down through the 
insulation inside of the coil into the primary (which 
as will be seen, is only separated from this secondary 
winding by the insulating tube) and in this way com¬ 
pletes for itself the circuit which should have been 
completed by the wire shown running from the binding 
post A to the battery binding post. This puts a very 
heavy strain upon the insulation and as the passage of a 
current through an insulating medium can be likened 
to blows of a hammer upon a piece of cast iron it is 
practically only a question of time when it can break 
down the insulation and form an easy path for itself 
by burning and carbonizing the insulating material so 

“./* . Can f aSS easi ‘y from A to the primary winding. 
While it is hammering its way down through the insula- 

ion the spark at the plug will be very weak; it will 
pro ably show that there is a spark, though the plug is 
taien out and laid on the cylinder and tested in the 
air, but upon trying to run the engine the spark will be 
so weak that it will not give good service; in fact it is 
oubtful if it will fire the mixture, although it might 
under favorable circumstances. As the insulation be¬ 
gins to break down however, the spark at the plug will 
begin to strengthen up and when the current has suc¬ 
ceeded in getting down through, the spark will be fairly 
good, though not as good as it would be if the connec¬ 
tions were made across from post A to the battery post 
and even after a coil has broken down at one end in 




MODERN IGNITION 121 

this way, connecting this wire in, will materially help 
the spark; the coil could still be used for a connection 
similar to that shown in Figure 51, but would be worth¬ 
less for the connections shown in Figure 52, for the 
reason that as soon as the spark from the binding post 
reached the ground through the spark plug, it would not 
pass into the second spark plug and back to the second¬ 
ary, but would go through the ground connection and 



back to the battery. In a great many coils this con¬ 
nection from binding post A to battery binding post 
is made inside the coil box so that binding post A 
is conspicuous by its absence, but it should be always 
borne in mind that an electric current, no matter how 
it is generated must go back to its starting point in 
order to do any useful work and the easier it can get 
there the more work it can do with the same amount 
of energy. 

Battery Output .—This subject is in relation to the 
amount of energy that 6 cells of dry battery can give 
under different connections. 

If each cell has l l / 2 volts and 15 amperes, it follows 
that each cell is capable of giving 22y 2 watts; for a watt 
is a volt multiplied by an ampere; thus 5 volts mul- 

























122 


TRACTION FARMING 


tiplied by 10 amperes would equal 50 watts, so 1^X15 
= 22 ^ 2 watts, (the watt is the unit of electrical power) 
so that our six celjs of battery are capable of exerting 
a force equal to 22y 2 times 6 or 135 watts. This is 
regardless of connections or ways of grouping the cells, 



as we can readily see by analyzing these methods of 
connecting these cells. 

Referring to Figure 50, we have 6 cells all con¬ 
nected to the same pair of wires, each cell putting V/ 2 



volts and 15 amperes into the line; this is a parallel 
connection so that the total amperage of the 6 cells 
is available, but only the voltage of one cell for the 
reason t lat each cell is connected singly to the line 

























MODERN IGNITION 


123 


and its voltage is not reinforced, nor does it reinforce 
the voltage of the other cells. 

Perhaps this would be more clearly seen by consid¬ 
ering each cell as a pump, capable of pumping 15 gal¬ 
lons of water per minute at a pressure of iy 2 lbs. into 
a pipe line; it can be readily seen then, that the output 
would be that of the combined pumps and the pressure 
of one. 

In Figure 51 the six cells are connected in series and 
the voltage of each one is added to the others; so that 
we have the combined voltage of 6 X 1^4=9 volts, but 
as the current or amperage has to pass through the re¬ 
sistance of all the group, the output in amperes is the 
same as only one cell or 15 amperes, therefore our an¬ 
swer is 9 voltsXIS amp.—135 watts; our simile of the 
pumps will apply here as well as before. 

In Figure 52 if we cover up any two groups of cells 
it can be readily seen that we have two cells in series 
in each group, and the three groups in parallel, thus 
giving us the voltage of the two cells in series and the 
amperage of the three groups, that is, each group of 2 
cells gives a pressure of 3 volts and an amperage of 
1 cell because as previously explained, the two are in 
series, so we have 3 times 15 amperes, or 45 amps. X 3 
volts, which equals 135 watts. 

Figure 53 is practically the same connection as Figure 
50. This can be readily seen if we imagine the cells 
from groups B and C disconnected from the line and the 
terminals of C connected to B end cell and C connected 
to B end and as the connection is the same, the same rea¬ 
soning will apply to it as to Figure 50. 

As each cell can only do a certain amount of work it 
naturally follows that the total amount done by any 






124 


TRACTION FARMING 


group of cells, will be the same, regardless of the way 
they are connected, unless some are connected so as to 
oppose others. 

The Battery Box .—Too much care cannot be taken 
with the installation of batteries, for in many cases where 
the blame has been placed on the cells for faulty igni¬ 
tion and short life, the real fault has been found in 
the connection and the arrangement. 

For the best service the batteries should be placed in 
a-covered box for protection against dirt and moisture, 
and for convenience the cover'should be hinged. Pro¬ 
vide a separate box for the storage of tools and spare 
parts, and above all avoid laying metallic objects of 
any description on top of the batteries or their connec¬ 
tions. 

Connections and wiring should be arranged so that 
they are not disturbed by vibration nor by the opening 
and closing of the cover. Wires that project high 
enough above the cells to come into contact with the 
cover are in many cases the cause of mysterious mis¬ 
firing, for a few slams of the cover will loosen the bind¬ 
ing screws, and the vibration of the engine will do the 
rest of the mischief. 

Dry battei les should always be allowed to retain 
theii papei jackets so that there will be no danger of 
internal short circuits caused by the zincs of the cell 
coming into contact with one another. To insure the 
sepai ation of the individual cells wooden partitions 
should be placed in the battery box, forming pigeon 
holes. Preferably, the partitions should be boiled in 
paraffine to pi event the wood from absorbing moisture. 

With marine engines and portables, which are ex¬ 
posed to the weather, it is good practice to fill the box 




MODERN IGNITION 


125 


i 

t with melted paraffine after the cells are in place, for 
the solid wax prevents the entrance of moisture and 
;e holds the cells firmly in place so that they or their con- 
;r nections are not affected by vibration. 

Loose connections will always result from sliding 
j loose cells, and after installing they should be fastened 
in place by wooden wedges driven between the cells 
1 and their partitions. 

Short Circuits .—Occasionally short circuits give more 
• 0 trouble than a complete breakdown of the entire igni- 
ir ti° n system, because the symptoms are very much like 
o carbureter troubles. A good and rapid way to test all 
:c parts of the ignition circuit is to run the engine in 
the dark, when the slightest leakage from the high ten¬ 
sion wires or along the porcelain of the plugs will be 
at. once seen by the faint light which indicates the short 
circuit. If the high tension insulation is carried out 
with a poor quality of rubber, or is too thin, a “short” 
may take place at any part. The slightest film of mois¬ 
ture or lubricating oil on the outer part of the porcelain 
plug also tends to leading away the spark and causing 
misfiring. 






CHAPTER XII. 


VAPORIZING OF FUEL. 

How best to mix gasoline and air is one of the im¬ 
portant problems which confronts the gasoline engine 
designer and builder and also one which gives the in¬ 
dividual owner who is trying to improve his power plant 
no little concern. As the power derived from a gasoline 
engine depends upon the speed with which the fuel 
burns, and that depends to a considerable extent upon 
thoroughly diffusing the gasoline in the air, it is readily 
seen that the subject is one of vital importance. 

The widely varying speeds with which gasoline may 
bum was aptly illustrated by a writer who said in sub¬ 
stance that a given amount of gasoline placed in a small 
dish and lighted will burn in a certain length of time; 
if burned in a large receptacle, like the drip pan some¬ 
times placed under a car, it will be exposed to more air 
and will therefore be consumed in a much shorter time. 
If vaporized and mixed with air in proper proportions 
it will burn with a sharp explosion occupying an almost 
immeasurably small fraction of a second. 

These are familiar truths to all, but their mention will 
help to impress upon the mind the extreme importance 
of thoroughly mixing gasoline and air in order to pro¬ 
mote rapid combustion. While proper proportioning is 
most desirable, complete diffusion of these proportions 


126 




VAPORIZING OF FUEL 


127 


must not be overlooked nor its value underestimated. 
Evidence of a lack of thorough mixing is indicated by 
the stratification sometimes shown to exist in the com¬ 
pressed charge by manograph cards taken from gasoline 
engines. 

Carbureter spraying nozzles are made in considerable 
variety, and an impartial experimenter after carefully 
and repeatedly testing six of the best established forms 
found a considerable range in the power derived from 
the same motor while using the same amount of fuel, 
noting a variation of 19 per cent in engine efficiency 
between the two extremes, which can only be accounted 
for by the theory that some nozzles gave a more thor¬ 
ough mixing of fuel and air than others. 

Carbureters with very small nozzles may produce a 
fine spray, but would appear subject to clogging with 
the sediment invariably found in gasoline tanks even 
after the most careful filtering. Instead of reducing 
openings through which gasoline must pass it is safer 
to employ some other aid to diffusion rather than use 
nozzles which are liable to stoppage. 

Gauze in the inlet pipe has its objections, but it is a 
help which ought not to be neglected. It has the ad¬ 
vantages of being efficient, without moving parts, com¬ 
pact, inexpensive, silent, and does not appear liable to 
clog. 

Passing the mixture through several layers of fine 
gauze tends to cut it up and mix it intimately. It also 
provides a staggered route through which the mixture 
must go, and owing to the small openings and many ob¬ 
structions any globules of gasoline are shattered into a 
state of fine division. No experience or experiments 
show it, but it seems as though the shape of the nozzle 



128 


TRACTION FARMING 


would be of little consequence if the mixture is passed 
through several layers of fine gauze. 

The gauze first experimented with consisted of three 
layers made of copper wire and having 110 meshes to 
the linear inch, with two projecting layers of 16-mesh. 
The fine gauze, with the large number of 12,100 open¬ 
ings per square inch, each-dess than .0056 in. square, 
would seem to insure a very thorough cutting up of 
whatever passes through it. That the inlet admitted of 


being obstructed by three layers of fine gauze, the open¬ 
ing through each of which suggested only 38 per cent 
of the nominal size of the pipe, must have been due to 
the liberal margin allowed by the designer. 

Vaporizing Functions of the Carbureter .—An ideal 
gasoline carbureter should deliver the fuel mixture in 
as completely aeriform a condition, that is, as free from 
entrained liquid hydrocarbon, as does the mixing valve 
of a gas engine; but the only type of gasoline carbureter 
which approaches measurably near this ideal in this re¬ 
spect is the surface carbureter, in which the required 
air circulates over a very large expanse of gasoline 
wetted surface in the presence of an adequate available 
heat supply. A fuel vapor practically free from admix¬ 
ture of entrained liquid can be obtained from one of 
these vaporizers. The average carbureter of vhe pre¬ 
vailing float feed spraying type only imperfectly per¬ 
forms the work which it is designed to do. It occupies 
a position between a liquid fuel injecting device and a 
vaporizing de\ ice of ideal characteristics. TJie charge 
which it delivers to the intake piping consists, as a rule, 
of a rather weak mixture of gasoline vapor and air, in 
which are carried small drops of gasoline, in a condi¬ 
tion very similar to that in which water exists in prim- 






VAPORIZING OF FUEL 


129 


ing in steam. In the inlet piping this mixture may be 
modified either by a reduction of the entrained globules 
of gasoline and a consequent increase in richness of 
the aeriform portion of the charge, or less probably by 
a further increase in the proportion of condensed gaso¬ 
line. In either case, except under very unusually favor¬ 
able circumstances, some liquid gasoline reaches the 
cylinders, and is utilized, if at all, as is the fuel sup¬ 
plied by the injector system spoken of above. Its par¬ 
tial evaporation in the cylinder serves to enrich the aeri¬ 
form portion of the charge furnished by the carbureter, 
but it is usually only partially volatilized, and whatever 
portion escapes volatilization is lost, and much worse 
than lost, as cylinder incrustations and an offensive ex¬ 
haust result from it. 

A volatile fluid, like gasoline, when it escapes in a 
finely subdivided and in a heated condition from a re¬ 
gion of higher to a region of lower pressure, passes very 
rapidly into vapor. The extent to which the gasoline 
in a regular carbureter can advantageously be heated is, 
however, extremely limited, for if its temperature is 
greatly raised vaporization will take place in the passage 
of the jet, vapor will flow through it instead of liquid, 
and its capacity for passing fuel will fall to a small 
value and only an unworkably weak charge will result. 
Heating the float chamber by means of a jacket up to 
the safe limit materially increases the tendency toward 
the gasification of the fuel, especially as the gasoline 
when leaving the jet and entering the float chamber 
meets with a pressure slightly below atmosphere. The 
denser the fuel used the higher the temperature of the 
float chamber may be carried. 

There is very little doubt that the supplying to the 




130 


TRACTION FARMING 


liquid fuel directly of sufficient heat to vaporize it is a 
far preferable method to that of depending upon the 
absorption of the requisite heat by contact of the fuel 
with hot surfaces after entering the vaporizing chamber. 
It has been repeatedly pointed out that preheating of 
the air for the mixture is a less desirable method of sup¬ 
plying the necessary heat than that of heating the liquid 
fuel, for the specific heat of air and its conductivity 
are low, and the heat required for the vaporization of a 
fuel globule is applied externally to that globule by the 
warmed air. 

In the case of a carbureter having a hot jacket about 
its vaporizing chamber there is constantly a film of gaso¬ 
line adhering to and taking its heat of vaporization from 
the warm walls, which film is constantly being renewed 
by the breaking against the walls of the globules from 
the jet. As the liquid laden air in the vaporizing cham¬ 
ber is in violent motion the chances of the liquid par¬ 
ticles meeting the warm walls are good, and the vaporiz¬ 
ing effect is good, so far as it goes. 

Heating Devices .—Heat from the circulating water 
only becomes available in its fullness after the motor 
has been run for a length of time sufficient to bring the 
temperature to the normal operative value. Strictly 
speaking, the temperature of the jacket water should 
increase with the instantaneous rate of fuel consumption, 
and in a way this is automatically brought about; but 
there is quite a time lag between a sudden call for in¬ 
creased fuel consumption and the rise in jacket water 
temperature which this brings about. 

Heat supplied from the exhaust is fully available as 
soon as the motor begins to run, and the exhaust tem¬ 
perature varies with the rate of fuel consumption with- 








131 


VAPORIZING OF FUEL 

out any time lag between the two. Jacketing with the 
exhaust has the objection, however, that water, excess 
lubricating oil and soot carried by the escaping gases 
are likely to foul and even to clog any small passages 
which may exist in the system. 

An internal combustion engine can be operated with 
any good carbureter. A measured quantity of fuel can 
be squirted upon the inlet valve during each suction 
stroke or introduced into the combustion space through 
a special injection nozzle. This practice is common in 
stationary work, where low rotary speeds prevail. The 
valve and the port walls and other adjacent surfaces 
swept by the entering charge constitute the vaporizing 
sui faces under these circumstances, and they have the 
advantage over the evaporating surfaces of many car¬ 
bureters of being in a constantly heated condition. Dur¬ 
ing the compression period, in such an engine, high tem¬ 
peratures ai e reached on account of the high pressure 
carried, and vaporization is thus completed. Liquid fuel 
cannot burn as such, and can only unite with oxygen 
when in the aeriform condition. Whatever fuel remains 
in the liquid condition up to the beginning of exhaust 
is ejected unburned, and all fuel failing of vaporization 
up to the end of the compression stroke is very ineffi¬ 
ciently utilized. 

Adjustments. First adjust for slow running. Set 
the spark back, shut off the air valve, and close the 
throttle slightly. Under such conditions a richer mix¬ 
ture will be required than for high speeds. First close 
the needle valve and then open it little by little until 
the engine runs steadily. Give it just a little more gaso¬ 
line than it seems to need under these conditions. By 
all means have the engine driving its load while making 
these tests. 




132 


TRACTION FARMING 


Next, open the throttle and advance the spark slightly. 
Aou will find then that more air is needed. Supply this 
by diminishing the compression of the air-valve spring. 
Let the engine run for some little time after each ad¬ 
justment, especially if it is a two-cycle engine. 

After this, advance the spark as far as it will stand; 
that is, until the engine begins to skip. The final ad¬ 
justment may now be made, generally by admitting a 
little more air, and perhaps a very little more gasoline. 
Juggle it until you get the maximum speed. When once 
set, leave it alone. 

In multiple cylinder engines, each cylinder may be 
tested out separately by shutting off the spark from the 
others. This will often show that some cylinders re¬ 
quire more fuel than the others, in which case the best 
results will be obtained by using the average. 

Gasoline Engine Backfiring .—By the word ‘‘backfir¬ 
ing ’ is meant the explosion of a charge or a part of it 
when the inlet valve is open and the mixture is entering 
the cylinder. The inlet valve being open, allows the 
force pressure or expansion to escape into the carbureter 
01 mixer, 01 into the crankcase in a two-cycle engine. 
This often causes a regular shot gun report, which seems 
to, and actually does, come out of the open end of the 
inlet pipe. It has been expressed in different terms, 
“shooting out of the intake pipe,” “exploding in the car¬ 
bureter or crankcase,” etc. But what is the cause of it, 
and how may it be overcome, are questions that all op¬ 
erators aie inteiested in. It is known that oftentimes 
feeding a little more gasoline will overcome the trouble, 
but why this will do it is not generally known. In the 
majority of stationary and portable gasoline engines no 
attempt is made at keeping the air and gasoline at con- 



VAPORIZING OF FUEL 


133 


stant proportions as is done in the automobile carbureter. 
In the ordinary gasoline engine, after it is started, the 
air volume entering the cylinder remains constant, and 
if the gasoline needle is set a little too close, the mixture 
verges on the rare point, which causes it to burn slowly 
and continues a flame in the cylinder quite often during 
the entire exhaust stroke. And even after the intake 
valve opens and the fresh mixture comes rushing in, 
there yet lingers a flame from the previous combustion, 
which instantly ignites the new charge as it enters the 
cylinder. The flame spreads through the entire mixture 
clear into the mixer or carbureter which, the inlet valve 
being open, results in a backfire. One can readily un¬ 
derstand then how feeding more gasoline, so as to in¬ 
sure a rich, quick-burning mixture, which will consume 
itself before the end of the exhaust stroke will prevent 
further backfiring from this cause. 

Carbon in Cylinders .—Carbon deposit in the cylinder 
is one of the most fruitful sources of trouble in a gaso¬ 
line engine. If the cylinders get too much lubricating 
oil a portion of it will work up past the pistons; the 
intense heat will consume or evaporate the oil, leaving 
a deposit of carbon; this may be augmented by too rich 
a mixture, which serves to deposit lamp black or carbon 
in a film on the inside and top of the compression cham¬ 
ber and on the heads of the pistons. The films thus 
formed will in time commence to scale and, the projec¬ 
tions becoming fused by the heat of the explosions, will 
serve to prematurely ignite the charge. 

The symptoms are backfiring and knocking in the cyl¬ 
inders, as if the spark were too far advanced. An al¬ 
most infallible symptom of excessive carbon deposit in 
the cylinders is the motor showing plenty of power at 








134 


TRACTION FARMING 


high speed, but deficient in hill-climbing on high gear. 
At low engine speeds the incandescent carbon projections 
serve to pre-ignite the charge, thereby reducing the 
power of the motor. The cure is to take off the cyl¬ 
inders and scrape off the carbon deposit, being careful 
not to scratch the cylinder walls. The preventative is 
to so regulate the oil feed as to give the cylinders enough, 
but not too much, oil. 

Carbon will also form on the porcelain portion of the 
spark plugs, thereby furnishing a circuit, which the high 
tension current may travel over, rather than jump be¬ 
tween the sparking points of the plug. Usually only a 
part of the current will pass by way of the carbon film,, 
still leaving a weak spark at the points. This causes 
intermittent firing. 


CHAPTER XIII. 

COOLING SYSTEMS. 

The function of the water jacket—or of any other 
device for cooling the cylinder—is to prevent the heat 
of the metal from rising to such a degree as to impair 
the lubrication, and also to prevent pre-ignition of the 
charge. If the metal is cooled too much a portion of 
the heat of combustion is wasted by being uselessly con¬ 
ducted away. In a water cooled cylinder the tempera¬ 
ture of the water cannot well be allowed to rise above 
212 degrees Fahr., but this temperature of the jacket 
water might conceivably result in cooling the metal too 
much, particularly if the cylinder bore is small and the 
walls thin. 

Engines having water cooling systems should receive 
more careful attention perhaps than those having air or 
oil cooling systems. Water left for any length of time 
when the engine is not being used, will gradually find 
its way through the packing at the cylinder head, caus¬ 
ing corrosion in the inlet and exhaust valves. When 
the work for the season has been completed the water 
should be drawn off and the valves left open. Cylinders 
may become overheated by the improper flow of water 
through the cylinder water jacket or through the accumu¬ 
lation of dirt or scales in the water jacket. 

The water supply and feed should be very carefully 


135 



136 


TRACTION FARMING 


watched in the operation of gasoline engines, as it is 
very often the seat of annoyance and not infrequently 
serious trouble. Pure, clear water is about as easily 
obtained as dirty water. 

Fans used for cooling the cylinders are of various de¬ 
signs, most of them having four, five or six blades. 

The average speed of revolution is about l l / 2 times the 
speed of the engine. Fans consume but little power and 
serve to discharge the heated air away from the cyl¬ 
inders by replacing it with a constant current of cool 
air. These fans may be driven from the engine shaft 
by belt, gear wheels or friction drive. If the engine is 
water cooled, the system may be either the hopper cool¬ 
ing system or the closed jacket circulatory system. If 
either of the two methods are used, it will be necessary 
to drain the cooling systems when the engine is not run¬ 
ning, in cold weather, unless an anti-freezing solution is 
used in the hopper cooler. 

Anti-Freezing Solutions ,—The most widely used prep¬ 
arations, which are easily obtained, are wood alcohol, 
glycerine and calcium chloride, the first named being 
more favored, because it has no injurious effect on either 
the rubber connections, the metal piping or the water 
jacket of the cylinder, whereas calcium is apt to attach 
to the metal, and glycerine, in time, dissolves the rubber 
hose connecting the radiator to the motor. 

The wood alcohol solution is usually preferred, because 
it does no damage to the parts, and has no faults, ex¬ 
cept that it evaporates. Wood alcohol differs from glyc¬ 
erine in one very essential particular, in that it is the 
wood alcohol that boils off instead of the water. 

It can be used in either small or large quantities, ac¬ 
cording to the occurrent drops in temperature of the 



COOLING SYSTEMS 137 

M • ‘ \ 

latitudes in which it is employed, and the following will 
; give a good idea of what may be expected of the various 
proportions of the mixture: 

A 10 per cent solution in water freezes at 18 above 
zero. 

A 20 per cent solution in water freezes at 5 above 
zero. 

A 25 per cent solution in water freezes at 2 below 
zero. 

A 30 per cent solution in water freezes at 9 below 
, zero. 

A 35 per cent solution in water freezes at 15 below 
zero. 

A 40 per cent solution in water freezes at 24 below 
zero. 

It will be readily seen that a 30 per cent solution will 
be ample for all occasions. In many cases one filling of 
the radiator with this solution will last through the win¬ 
ter, but should any loss occur in the radiator equal parts 
of water and alcohol should be added. 

Calcium chloride is a very effective cooling agent, but 
unless the chemically pure article is used, there is dan¬ 
ger of corrosion of the metal with which it comes in con- 
: tact. Crude calcium chloride retails at about 8 or 10 
; cents per pound, but the chemically pure article is worth 
I about 25 cents per pound in small quantities. A solu¬ 
tion of 5 pounds of calcium chloride to each gallon of 
i water will not freeze at any temperature above 39 de-. 
- grees below zero; but the following table will aid in pre¬ 
paring the proper solution for the different temperatures. 

1 pound for each gallon of water freezes at 27 above 
zero. 

2 pounds for each gallon of water freezes at 18 above 
zero. 






138 TRACTION FARMING 

t 

3 pounds for each gallon of water freezes at 1.5 below 
zero. 

3^4 pounds for each gallon of water freezes at 8 be¬ 
low zero. 

4 pounds for each gallon of water freezes at 17 below 
zero. 

5 pounds for each gallon of water freezes at 39 below 
zero. 

A convenient way to prepare the solution is to first 
make a saturated solution of the calcium chloride and 
water, that is, to mix with a quantity of water at 60 
degrees Fahrenheit, all the calcium chloride the water 
will dissolve, and use equal parts of this solution and 
pure water. If chemically pure calcium chloride is used 
no trouble will result, but chloride of lime, often sold 
as pure calcium chloride, should be avoided. 

Glycerine is an effective agent, and as it will not crys¬ 
tallize in the water jackets it is preferable in this respect 
to calcium chloride, and it has the further merit of not 
requiring any renewal during the season, as it does not 
evaporate. It is, therefore, only necessary to add pure 
v ater to replace that which has evaporated. Several 
solutions of glycerine and water, with regard to de¬ 
grees of cold in which they may be safely used, follow: 

A 10 per cent solution freezes at 28 above zero. 

A 30 per cent solution freezes at 15 above zero.' 

A 40 per cent solution freezes at 5 above zero' 

A 50 per cent solution freezes at 2 below zero. 

A 55 per cent solution freezes at 10 below zero. 

In using a glycerine solution care should be taken to 
thoroughly cleanse the jackets of any residue of crystals 
from a calcium solution previously used, as this residue 
W1 thlcken and cloud the glycerine solutions and render 





COOLING SYSTEMS 


139 


them partially inefiective. Solutions of glycerine will 
thicken up when subject to low temperature, but will 
not solidify and, unless it does, it will not disrupt the 
piping of the radiator or the jackets of the cylinders. 

Assuming that the wood alcohol is to be preferred on 
some counts as less liable to choke up constricted pas¬ 
sages or attack the hose connections, and that outside 
these evils which are characteristic of a glycerine and 
water solution, it is a most desirable and substantial mix¬ 
ture; then it is well to consider the advisability of re¬ 
ducing the quantity of glycerine, and substituting alcohol 
instead. By the use of both wood alcohol and glycerine, 
the total proportion of water can be increased, and that 
is a step in the right direction on two counts, that is, cost 
and stability. The following combinations of half al¬ 
cohol and half glycerine and water may be used. 

A 10 per cent solution will freeze at 25 above zero. 

A 20 per cent solution will freeze at 15 above zero. 

A 25 per cent solution will freeze at 8 above zero. 

A 30 per cent solution will freeze at 5 below zero. 

A 35 per cent solution will freeze at 15 below zero. 

A common solution of salt (sodium chloride) may 
also be used. It remains fluid down to 0 degrees Fahren¬ 
heit. An incrustation, however, occurs as the water 
evaporates, and it is claimed electrolytic action would 
follow its use. Common salt is cheap, but radiators are 
costly, delicate and composite in construction—that is 
to say, there are a plurality of metals in the makeup of 
radiators, hence electrolytic action would follow, due to 
the difference of potential nature to different metals im¬ 
mersed in a saline bath. 

Water cooling for the gas engine seems to be by far 
the most used. Most engines used for automobiles are 





140 


TRACTION FARMING 


the water cooled type, the cooling being accomplished 

. 3 . a clrculatl0n of water from a tank or radiator to the 
jacketed walls of the cylinder. According to the laws 
of liquids the heated water will rise to the top while the 
coo er layers will fall correspondingly. This is known 

as the gravity system and will be found in use almost 
anywhere the gas engine is used. 

The pump or forced circulation is much used and has 
advantages over the gravity system as it keeps the wa- 
er continually moving from the jacket of the cylinder 
o the supply tank or the radiator, which being em- 
poyed, a less quantity of water is required to cool the 
engine cylinder, or radiate the heat units. Efficiency of 
e gas engine depends much on the temperature of the 
water in the cooling system. The best practice is to 
supp j water to the jacket at such a temperature that 
ie hand can be held on the jacket, or in other words, 
eow e 01 mg point. If steam is seen coming from 
the relief or outlet of the radiator, look for a stoppage 
n the pipes somewhere, though if the pumps are run in 
the wrong direction the result will often be the same 

. h , 6 pMnp 1S t0 be tested > run the motor for a few 
minutes and ascertain how long it takes for the water to 

‘ ! 6 t0p ° f the radi ator tubes. It frequently hap¬ 
pens that some of the tubes are hot while others are 

the oir T, CaS£ th£ • tr ° Uble Wi " USUal ‘y be found in 
• f P P i 16 PUmP IS USed because 'I gives a more- 
uniform heat at all times to the engine cylinder and 

this of course, adds much to fuel economy. The design 
of the cylinder should be such that as much of the sur¬ 
face as possible be exposed to the air, the greatest pos¬ 
sible amount of freedom for the circulation of the wa- 
er eing the object. There are many types of radiators, 




COOLING SYSTEMS 


141 


but the honeycomb and the tube with small fins are used 
to a great extent. Motors using the natural water cir¬ 
culation require from 5 to 5j/2 sq.ft, of radiation to the 
horse power. Generally speaking, the thickness of the 
water jacket space around the cylinder is % °f the bore 
of the cylinder, while many vary from this. If water 
from the hydrant is forced around the cylinder so as to 
keep it cool, the heat from the explosion is cooled down 
so quickly by radiation that the expansive force is ma¬ 
terially reduced, and this, of course, reduces the power 
with the same charge that would give good results with 
the water at the proper temperature. The object in 
using water is not to keep the cylinder cold, but simply 
to cool it sufficiently to prevent the lubricating oil from 
burning from the heat, for the hotter the cylinder the 
more power will be developed with the same charge 
drawn into the cylinder; providing the lubrication of 
the cylinder is not affected thereby. With the average 
engine, the consumption of fuel is more economical when 
under full load and the water temperature correct. 

Starting Up on a Cold Morning —If the engine is one 
which has the hopper cooling system, using water only, 
it is best to pour a pail of warm water into the hopper 
on a cold morning. This should be allowed to stand a 
few minutes before starting. It may be necessary to 
add boiling water if weather is extremely cold. This 
operation is more difficult if the closed jacket is used. 
In such a case it will be necessary to make a connection 
with the overflow water pipe which enters the top of the 
cylinder. 

Another method of warming the cylinder is to lay a 
piece of heavy cloth which will absorb water very read¬ 
ily upon the carbureter or cylinder head or both, and 









142 


TRACTION FARMING 


upon this pour steadily a stream of boiling - water. The 
hot water method has proven very efficient, and is much 
easier than cranking an engine until the cylinder is 
warmed up enough for starting. 


CHAPTER XIV. 




% 


Z' 


LUBRICATION. 

Engines which are air cooled require more lubrication 
in the cylinders, as well as a heavier oil because the tem¬ 
perature of the metal is invariably higher than where 
the water cooled system is in use. 

An oil suitable for this purpose must have-three char¬ 
acteristic points, i.e., a good body, low in carbon, and 
lastly, it must Lave a very high fire test. That is, the 
temperature at which the vapor coming from the oil 
would ignite should not be lower than 500 to 600 degrees. 

Any lubricant leaving a large amount of carbon or 
residue should be carefully avoided. 

For the crank and crankshaft bearings, the same grade 
of lubricant as is used for the cylinder gives the best 
results, and the amount should be three to four drops 
per minute with the gravity system and a proportion¬ 
ately small amount with the force feed system. 

This method of lubrication is now being adopted on 
a large number of gas engines because of its reliability. 
A tank holding a quantity of oil is located at some con¬ 
venient point on the engine. A small force pump is 
worked from the crank, or camshaft, as the case may 
be, and forces the oil through brass or copper tubes 
directly to the bearings and by means of check valves 
located at the pump and also near the sight feed a pres- 


143 


144 


TRACTION FARMING 


sure of several pounds to the square inch is obtained 
and each drop,of oil is assured of reaching the proper 
place. This system requires practically no attention 
other than refilling of the tanks. 

Where grease cups are used the caps or plungers 
should be screwed down at least two turns each hour. 
If a small quantity of graphite, about one tablespoonful 
to one pound of grease is used, one full turn of the cap 
or plunger each hour will be sufficient. The graphite 
and grease should be thoroughly mixed before filling 
the cup. 

The fact that the lubricators are feeding is not a sign 
that the oil is reaching the proper place. Be sure the 
ducts are open and the lubricant goes to the bearing. 

Where the splash system of lubrication is used the 
oil holder or base should be carefully cleaned before each 
filling. Wipe the inside of the holder with waste or a 
piece of cloth, being careful to remove all the particles 
of grit and sediment which will collect on the sides and 
bottom. 

Cylinder Lubrication .—In cylinder lubrication extreme 
caution should be exercised. Just enough oil should be 
used to thoroughly lubricate the piston and no more. 
An excess will be burned by the high heat, and will form 
carbon on the rings, cylinder walls and piston. This 
carbon will, in a short time, become heated, causing pre¬ 
ignition and in a four-cycle engine frequent regrinding 
of the valves will be necessary. The piston rings will 
also stick, causing them to wear uneven, and thereby 
much of the compression will be lost, as well as a large 
amount of the power which should be delivered. 

From eight to ten drops of oil per minute should be 
delivered to the cylinder, where common cups or in 


LUBRICATION 


145 


other words, where the gravity system is used. With 
force feed this amount may be cut to five or six drops 
a minute, as they are much larger. An excess of oil in 
the cylinder will make itself known by the smoke from 
the exhaust pipe. 

Testing Oils .—Many animal and vegetable oils have 
a flashing point suitable to use in the gas engine cylinder, 
and yield a fire test sufficiently high to come above the 
requirements, but they contain acids that are injurious 
to the metal surfaces which they are intended to lubri¬ 
cate. 

A very simple test to detect acid in an oil is with blue 
litmus paper, which will show a pinkish color if there 
is any acid present. Another sensitive test, and a very 
practical one, is to partly cover a polished steel plate 
with a strip of flannel or lamp wick saturated with the 
lubricant to be tested. Expose this to the sunlight for 
about twenty-four hours. When the plate is wiped dry, 
if the lubricant is free from acid, the steel will have 
retained its gloss. If dull spots have developed on the 
surface covered, it is the sign of the presence of acid. 

The cold test is of great importance in all lubricants. 
Any kind of oil is subject to low temperatures at times 
if in cold climates. The cold test temperature is the 
point at which the oil congeals. In order that an oil may 
feed properly at all times it must have a very low cold 
test. Too low a cold test should not be demanded, 
however, as any advantage there is gained by a sacrifice 
in the heat tests. 

One requirement of a perfect lubricant is that it be 
consumed entirely or not at all, by the combustion in 
the cylinder. This would prevent all sooting due to the 
lubricant. Graphite fulfills the last requirement. It is 




146 


TRACTION FARMING 


not affected in any way by the temperature obtained in 
a gas engine cylinder. It forms a smooth coating over 
the surfaces. All microscopic grooves and holes are filled 
with it. It keeps the surfaces apart and improves com¬ 
pression by actually making the piston larger and the 
cylinder smaller. It helps to prevent binding of the 
piston. The use of graphite alone is not advised. But 
its good properties added to those of oil makq, their 
combination an excellent lubricant for cylinders and also 
bearings. 

It is not advisable to feed graphite in a common grav¬ 
ity feed oil cup. It may clog up the passage and cause 
trouble. It is often put into the cylinder through the 
spark plug hole with a bug gun, or blown in with a tube 
and quill. One should never use more than a small tea¬ 
spoonful for every pint of oil used. When a piston is 
taken out it should be thoroughly rubbed with graphite 
after being cleaned. Also any bearing and shaft when 
taken apart. Always use the fine graphite which is pre¬ 
pared especially for use where oil is also used. 

Soot in the Cylinder .—Soot in the cylinder may be 
removed at intervals without any particular amount of 
trouble if taken in time and not allowed to go for too 
long. Remove the spark plug and inject a small amount 
of kerosene and move the piston back and forth to al¬ 
low the carbon deposit to be cut up by the action of the 
oil. Gasoline will not answer the purpose, owing to its 
rapid evaporation. It is a very good practice to clean 
the engine at regular intervals, the frequency depending, 
of course, on its use. The cranks should be disconnected, 
the cylinder heads removed and the piston drawn from 
them. The cylinder may then be wiped out with a* cot¬ 
ton rag saturated with kerosene, the piston and rings 


LUBRICATION 


147 


cleaned, removing the gum deposit that has collected. 
After completing the operation, the parts should be well 
oiled before replacing, as this will allow the parts to 
work smooth from the start. 

When a squeak is heard, the engine should be stopped 
at once and the cause located, as it is evident that the 
squeak is caused by some part coming in contact with 
another with insufficient lubrication. For a noise of this 
kind it is well to look to some of the outside bearings 
other than the cylinder, as a dry cylinder will not be 
apt to squeak before it would seize. 

The cylinder head gasket should be examined at fre- 
• quent intervals, as many times it will prove defective, 
allowing the compression to escape and hence a loss of 
power. Water in the cylinder is caused many times by 
the gasket being blown and the water having free access 
to the interior of the cylinder. This, of course, makes 
it impossible to start the engine and also' causes the en¬ 
gine to stop many times while running. In repacking 
the cylinder head, nothing but the best packing should 
be used, as a poor grade of packing only adds to the 
motor troubles. Generally the motor manufacturer of¬ 
fers for sale a packing that is best adapted to the pack¬ 
ing of the cylinder head, and this should be used in pref¬ 
erence to something advertised by firms having the name 
and not the goods. Experiments with the gas engine 
are rather expensive and should, therefore, be avoided 
as much as possible. 

Knocking or Pounding in the Cylinder is caused gen¬ 
erally by over-rich mixture or advancing the spark too 
far, causing an ugly knock, and generally speaking, is 
very injurious to the motor. This sound, unlike any 
other knock about the motor, can be readily detected. 




148 


TRACTION FARMING 


A knock caused by an over-rich mixture is very similar 
to that caused by too early spark. A very rich mixture 
is very slow to ignite, and in many cases can be made 
so rich it will not ignite at all. If retarding the spark 
from the extreme fails to overcome the knock, it can 
generally be reduced by closing the throttle sufficiently 
to give more air and less gas. Advancing the spark to 
the extreme when the engine is running slow will many 
times cause a very ugly knock. The spark advance 
should be gradual as the engine gains in speed. Other 
causes of pounding in the cylinder, such as premature 
or self ignition, is a heavy pound, and unlike the sound 
caused from the early spark or the over-rich mixture. 
The knocks caused by some other defects are in no way 
as severe as the above-mentioned. Among some of the 
other causes of less importance is a lack of lubrication. 
This trouble should have immediate attention as soon 
as discovered as it will cause the cylinder to overheat 
and seize. A weak spark will cause a knock or, in other 
words, a sharp puffing sound. 



CHAPTER XV. 

HORSE POWER CALCULATIONS. 

Indicated Horse Pozver .—This is a computation based 
upon the mean effective pressure developed at each ex¬ 
plosion and is usually calculated from the same formula 
used in connection with steam engines: I. H. P.=s 
PLAN 

-where. P=mean effective pressure; L=length 

33,000 

of stroke (ft.) ; A=area of cylinder; N=number of ex¬ 
plosions per minute. This formula does not discrimin¬ 
ate between mechanical friction and losses in “fluid” 
friction. To get accurate results it is necessary to obtain 
the mean effective pressure after measuring the indi¬ 
cator diagrams recorded during both “power” and “cut¬ 
out” cycles as also “compression” and “suction” cards. 

It requires a considerable knowledge of gas engine 
practice to make use of the above formula. What is 
needed is one that is more arbitrary and fits the major¬ 
ity of cases and, moreover, requires the use of only a 
few facts, such as the diameter of cylinder, length of 
stroke and revolutions per minute. Such a formula will 
be of great value in estimating the probable power a 
gas engine should develop if well designed and properly 
built. 

Such a formula is given as follows: 

VXr.p.m. 

I. H. P.=-— 

10,000 


149 










150 


TRACTION FARMING 


which means that the indicated horse power is equal to 
the volume of the cylinder in cubic inches multiplied by 
the number of revolutions per minute and divided by 
10,000. The constant used varies from 9,000 to 14,000, 
depending upon certain types of engines; 10,000 is an 
average figure to use for four-cycle engines. The brake 
horse power will be from G 5 to 85 per cent of the result 
obtained; SO per cent may be taken as an average: For 
example, a 6 J /2 in. x 9 in. engine at 300 r.p.m. gave by 
test 7.2 h.p. The area of the piston is 33.2 sq.in. and 
the volume of the cylinder is 298.8 cu.in.; multiplying 
by 300 and dividing by 10,000 gives- 9.0 indicated horse 
power, or for a mechanical efficiency of 80 per cent 
7.2 brake horse power. 

These calculations involve the use of the indicator—- 
an instrument for ascertaining the average pressure in 
the cylinder throughout the length of the stroke, and as 
its use requires considerable extra equipment and piping, 
it is seldom applied to traction engines, especially on 
the farm. A simple and fairly reliable rule for ascer¬ 
taining the horse power of any gasoline engine is as 
follows: 

Rule. Multiply the square of the cylinder diameter 
in inches by the stroke in inches by revolutions per min¬ 
ute and divide by 16,000. 

Example: Single cylinder 5 in. diameter, stroke 7 
in., revolutions per minute 400. 


Sq. Dia. Stroke r.p.m. 
5 X 5 X 7 X 400 


16,000 


=4^8 h.p. 





151 


^ / 

HORSE POWER CALCULATIONS 


If it is a two- or four-cylinder engine, then multiply 
by the number of cylinders, as follows: 

Cyl. 

5X5X7X 400 X2 


--=8X h.p. 

16,000 

In this formula the letters R. P. M. mean revolutions 
per minute. 

Another rule is as follows: Let D represent diameter 
of cylinder in inches; L length of stroke in inches; R 
number of revolutions per minute; N number of cyl- 
inders. 


DXLXRXN 

Four-cycle: -=h.p. delivered approxi- 

16,000 

mately. 

DXLXRXN 

Two-cycle: —=-=h.p. delivered approxi¬ 


mately. 


13,000 






CHAPTER XVI. 


GASOLINE ENGINE TROUBLES. 

To those who are inexperienced in the use of gasoline 
engines there are a great many things that are confus¬ 
ing. Usually the great trouble is in starting one of these 
engines even though the rules are followed. There are 
three or four prime reasons which prevent an engine 
from starting:- The battery may be out of order, there 
may be water in the cylinder, the cylinder may be flooded, 
or the air is too cold and does not permit of the proper 
evaporation of gasoline. If the battery is a source of 
trouble, the first reason may be because of old age. An 
old battery may give indications of being strong, while 
in reality it is not strong enough to produce ignition. To 
test a battery without a testing meter is an easy matter, 
but this, of course, does not locate the weak cells and 
only gives information concerning the battery as a whole. 
In testing a battery disconnect the wires attached to the 
engine and bring the free ends together. If the battery 
is worn out a yellowish colored flame is produced as 
the two wires come in contact. If the battery is in a 
healthy condition there will be a dark blue or greenish 
flash. Another cause pertaining to the battery might 
also be found in a loose connection between two cells. 
The lock nut or thumb screw may be worked loose due 
to much handling; moving from place to place, if a 


152 




GASOLINE ENGINE TROUBLES 


153 


portable engine is used; or by the vibration of the en¬ 
gine v. hen the battery is attached to the engine skid or 
bed. Again, a person may find trouble in the leads or 
^wires which connect the battery to the engine. This is 
usually a broken wire inside of the insulation. When 
the insulation is broken, such a break is very easily 
found, but if the insulation is not broken then it is much 
more difficult to locate the trouble. A good method to 
use in discovering this break is to hold the wire between 
the thumb and forefinger and with the other hand pull ~ 
it tin ough slowly. If the w r ire is moved carefully back 
and forth or up and down as it passes between the fin¬ 
gers the break will be easily detected. 

If, after properly inspecting the battery and all its 
connections, everything is found satisfactory, it would be 
well to investigate the igniter. There are times when 
water forms in the cylinder and collects upon the igniter 
points. This acts as a continuous connection between 
the two points and the electric current is not broken 
when the contact is broken. Lubricating oil sometimes 
acts in the same way when an excess is used. It takes 
but a moment to remove the igniter and if such obstruc¬ 
tion is found it is easily remedied. If an excess of wa¬ 
ter is found in the cylinder when the igniter is removed, 
it will be necessary to remove the cylinder head and re- 
pac.v m order to pieient such a leakage. Another case 
which might be cited at this point is the over-charging 
of the ingoing air, which often results in what is termed 
flooding, that is, too much gasoline is admitted for the 
amount of air that is being taken into the compression 
chamber. I he gasoline does not evaporate and is drawn 
into the cylinder and acts to a certain extent as water. 

If an engine does not start after tv r o or three turns 







154 


TRACTION FARMING 


it is best to investigate the battery, as has been explained, 
in order to prevent this flooding. The best method to 
remove moisture in the cylinder when the engine is 
flooded is to open the air cocks on top or on the bottom 
of the cylinder, if such are provided. If not, hold the 
exhaust valve open and crank the engine until the mois¬ 
ture is expelled. It is more difficult to tell when the 
moisture has disappeared if the air cocks are not pro¬ 
vided, and probably the best method for determining this 
is to crank until you believe the moisture is out and then 
turn on the battery. If it is nearly removed and you 
now close the exhaust valve and give the crank one or 
two turns, you should receive a slight explosion, indicat¬ 
ing that the cylinder is not dry enough to attempt start¬ 
ing. If in the case of the air cocks, place the hand near 
the outlet and note if there is an appearance of gasoline 
as the air is driven out. If not, the same methods may 
be pursued as spoken of concerning the exhaust valve. 

Winter weather often causes more or less difficulty. 
The chief trouble is the slow evaporation of the gasoline. 
This can be overcome by applying internal or external 
heat. Some cylinders are provided with a primer for 
the purpose of charging the cylinder before the feed is 
opened. This method is found quite satisfactory, but 
also has its objections. An engine exposed to extreme 
cold, even if provided with a primer, is very liable to 
refuse to run and it will be necessary to resort to other 
methods. 

Ai} Locks iu the Fuel Pipe .—An air lock between the 
carbui eter and the supply tank can occur only when the 
pipe at some point between the tank and carbureter rises 
to a level higher than the carbureter, after having been 
at some other point nearer the tank below this level. If 






155 


GASOLINE ENGINE TROUBLES 

the pipe is thus bent, it will be impossible for the air in 
the pipe to escape at any point other than through the 
carbureter float valve when the tank is filled. After the 
pipe has once been cleared of air its action, will be as 
good as that of a straight or direct pipe, unless the hump 
of the bend is quite high and the flow through the pipe 
sluggish. If these conditions obtain it is often found 
that in hot weather the fuel in the pipe will be partially 
vaporized, and that this vapor will accumulate in the 
pipe at the rising bend, thus preventing the flow of fuel 
to the carbureter. This is most apt to occur if the lower 
parts of the pipe pass in close proximity to the exhaust 
: pipe or other heated part. In such a case vapor will 
accumulate at the highest part, and may become present 
in such quantity as to stall the engine before it can be 
cleared out in the natural course of events. The remedy 
is so to arrange the pipe line that it is either a steady 
rise or drop from tank to carbureter, or is of U-shape 

with no points other than ends higher than the lowest 
point. 

Engine Fires Irregularly .—If the engine fires irregu- 
laily it may be due to any of the following causes: In¬ 
sulation broken on wires, causing a short circuit in the 
electric current. The contact at the timer may be poor, 
or the terminals on the coil may be loose or corroded. 
The spark plug may be cracked, or the points not prop¬ 
erly adjusted. They should be about 3/32 of an inch 
apart. In case of a weak battery they may be closed a 
trifle, dhe fuel supply may not be regulated correctly; 
it might be so rich it will not ignite, or so weak it can¬ 
not be ignited; in either case the engine would run ir¬ 
regularly. The spark coil may be poorly adjusted, or 
the platinum points pitted and stick. 









156 


TRACTION FARMING 


/ 


Sometimes an engine will fire regularly but have no 
power. In this case it may be due to poor compression, 
which is due to worn or broken rings, broken or warped 
valves, leaky gaskets, scored or worn cylinder walls and 
weak valve springs. The fuel mixture may be weak, 
or lubrication poor. Muffler may be stopped with a 
sooty deposit until the back pressure will destroy the 
power. The exhaust valve may be lifted only part way, 
not allowing the burned charge to be expelled from the 
cylinder. 

Broken Spark Ping .—A hissing sound can be caused 
by a broken spark plug allowing the compression to be 
forced through the fracture, or by the compression blow¬ 
ing past the rings. A cracked exhaust pipe, or an open 
compression cock, will emit a hissing sound, as will a 
blown gasket between the exhaust pipe and the muffler. 

Loss of Power .—In case the engine runs but seems to 
have no power, look for the following: Over-rich mix¬ 
ture, caused by too much gas and not enough air; weak 
mixture, caused by too much air and not enough gaso¬ 
line; loose or slipping fly wheel, insufficient lubrication, 
valves in bad condition, worn or broken rings, weak bat¬ 
teries and water in the gasoline. 

If the engine has been running well and gradually 
slows up, missing explosions, look for trouble in the fuel 
supply, or fouled spark plugs* insufficient lubrication, 
weak batteries, wiring defective, being nearly broken 
and hanging by a thread, or loss of compression. 

Explosions in the muffler are due to any of the fol¬ 
lowing: Exhaust valve stuck, weak mixture failing to 
burn in the cylinder and burning in the muffler, weak 
spark not firing the charge until the working stroke is 
nearly finished. In this case it will not burn while pass¬ 
ing to the muffler. 



gasoline engine troubles w7 

The water getting too hot, causing overheating, is 
generally caused by some of the following: Clogged 
pipes, incorrect timing of the valve, fan not working 
pump broken or disconnected, oil in the water, muffler 
stopped up and a very late spark. In case there are ex¬ 
plosions in the mixing valve, or carbureter, look to the 
intake valve or its spring. The valve may be broken 
or leaking, or the spring may be weak, not seating the 
valve properly, or the mixture may be weak, late spark 
or the valves incorrectly timed. When the engine be¬ 
gins to knock it should be stopped at once and some of 
tie following examined: Flywheel may be loose on 
the shaft, or the cylinder may be loose, rings may be 
broken or badly worn, bearings may be loose and need 
tightening, carbon deposit on the cylinder head, spark 
occurring too early, over-rich mixture, loose cross head 
bearing, and defective lubrication—this will cause knock¬ 
ing when the piston is about to seize. Finally, see that 
all parts of the carbureter are clean; that the float feed 
is free and does not bind, and that clean gasoline free 
fiom water is fed to it. A single particle of water at 
the needle valve will put the whole thing out of business. 
But water will settle at the bottom of the float feed 
chamber. Drain this off occasionally into a glass to see 
if there is water in it. This will show at a glance, for 
the water and gasoline will remain unmixed. A good 
separator and strainer in the gasoline feed pipe will cure 
this too frequent cause of trouble. 

^ Don ts. Don t try to start before first turning 
the switch on, or without fuel and lubricating oil turned 
on. 

Don’t start with the spark in an advanced position; a 
broken arm may be the result. 






158 


TRACTION FARMING 


Don’t use poor or worn insulated wire. 

Don’t wear your engine to pieces if it will not run. 
The trouble will in all probability be located by one of 
the following tests. Turn your engine over and see if 
the compression is correct; see if you have a spark; see 
that the gasoline supply is correct and has no' water in 
it; see that the needle valve of carbureter is not clogged 
with dirt; see that the engine valves are not stuck and 
that they seat quickly. 

Don’t fail to read instructions on starting the engine. 

Don’t forget to keep cylinder lubricator filled and feed¬ 
ing. A dry piston will greatly reduce the power and cut 
the cylinder or piston. 

Don’t think that the cylinder should be perfectly cold. 
A gasoline engine works best when it is warm. 

Don’t keep the cylinder too hot or too cold. See that 
the air has full circulation. It is as necessary as gaso¬ 
line. An engine cannot pull a load if overheated. 

Don’t forget to throw switch out when engine is not 
in use. 

Don’t fail to use the kind of cylinder oil recommended 
by the maker. It may be better than the more expensive 
grades. 

Don’t try to wipe engine while in motion. 

Don’t use too much gasoline. The engine develops 
the most power when working on a smokeless mixture. 
A black smoke coming from exhaust means too much 
gasoline; a blue smoke means too much lubricating oil. 

Don’t try to start engine with cylinder full of gaso¬ 
line. Shut off same and turn engine over a few times 
before trying again. 

Don’t fail to see that everything is ready before try¬ 
ing to start engine. 







gasoline engine troubles 


. Don 1 for § et that nine times out of ten when the en¬ 
gine will not run you are at fault. Look around you 
and see what you have forgotten. It does no good to 
turn oyer the engine if conditions are not right. 

. Don,t faiI t0 Iool < your engine over carefully when it 
is m first-class condition. You will then know how to 
nx it when something- goes wrong. 

Don t fail to have a fine gauze screen put in your fun¬ 
nel and strain all gasoline put in the tank. 

Don’t allow the working parts of engine to knock or 

hammer. Pay special attention to the connecting rod 

and keep it as tight as will allow engine to turn easily 
and run cool. 

I . Don t think your engine will not wear out and that 
it does not need some care. > 

I Don t be afraid to try to fix your own engine. You can¬ 
not tell what a good job you can do until you have tried. 
Don t allow dirt or dust to accumulate on top of your 
| batteries, as there is danger of short-circuiting them. 
Don t forget to see that the wires are tight on the 

j b a tf er i es > and that they may become exhausted in five 
or six months. 

Don’t run electric bells with engine battery, and don’t' 
let your engine stand outdoors without some cover for 
1. P r °t ec tion from rain. If the batteries become wet they 
will be short circuited and become useless. 

Don’t forget to look into the gasoline tank before send- ' 
ing for an expert. This seems simple but it has been 
omitted many times at great expense. 

i Don t screw the spark plug in too tight—just enough 
to prevent leakage and hold firmly. 

Don’t use a wrench on the upper nut of the spark 
plug; you may break the porcelain. 


( 










160 


TRACTION FARMING 


Don’t forget to turn off the gasoline or lubricating oil 
when through running engine. 

Don’t run engine without water turned on. 

Don’t forget to draw off the water from the cylinder 
in freezing weather. 

Don’t place the coil and batteries so they will get wet. 

Don’t tinker with the carbureter as soon as engine 
misses—it may be the ignition. 

Don’t screw the vibrator down too stiff—your batter¬ 
ies will not last as long, and you will get no better re¬ 
sults. 

Don’t try to start the engine with the carbureter throt¬ 
tle wide open. 

Don't try to wipe the engine while it is running. 

Don’t forget to fill the fuel tank. 

Don’t forget to fill the oilers. 

Don’t allow water to accumulate in the muffler. It 
will either cause loss of power or stop the engine. 

Don’t fail to have an extra set .of batteries and spark 
plug on hand. 

Don’t be afraid to study your engine. 

Don’t look for leaks in the gasoline pipe or tank with 
a lighted match. 

Don’t fail to provide suitable foundation for the engine. 

Don’t fail to remember if the gasoline gets afire that 
water only spreads the flames; use a fire extinguisher, 
sand or blanket. If the gasoline in the carbureter catches 
fire, turn off the fuel at tank and open the throttle wide 

—it will draw the flames into the cylinder and do no 
harm. 

Don’t get excited. 

Don’t bolt a magneto on to an iron or steel bar—use 
brass or aluminum. 




CHAPTER XVII. 

types of gasoline and oil farm tractors. 

A large variety of gas and oil tractors has been put on 
the market within the past few years, and while the gen¬ 
eral principles underlying their construction are neces¬ 
sarily the same in all, yet each one has some special 
features which characterize it. In the following pages 
the leading types of tractors are described in detail, and 
the special features of each are brought out. The de¬ 
scription of any one tractor to the exclusion of others 
would prevent a thorough presentation of much useful 
information, and yet it has not been possible to include 
all the tractors on the market. The only object has 
been to present enough to illustrate all the special fea- 
0 f tp e various engines. 


BATES ALL STEEL TRACTOR. 

Figure 54 shows the Bates traction engine which pos¬ 
sesses in a high degree the merit of compactness and 
freedom of the working parts from dust and the inclem¬ 
encies of the weather. The hood enclosing the engine 
and other working parts can be entirely removed when 
necessaiy. The cab also is easily removable. 


161 






162 


TRACTION FARMING 


The engine is of the two-cylinder opposed type and 
will develop 25 to 30 h.p. running at a speed of 500 r.p.m. 
The cylinders are cast separate from the crankcase and 
cylinder-heads, thus making it a very easy matter to 
replace the old cylinders with new ones, which it is 
claimed is cheaper than it is to rebore old cylinders. 



FIGURE 54. 


The cylinder-heads in which the inlet and exhaust 
valves operate, are cast separate from the cylinder, and 
are fitted with a water circulation for cooling the valves. 
The valves are cast iron, with steel stems operating in 
guides of sufficient length to insure perfect alignment. 
The valve head on which the valve gear operates is made 
of hardened steel. The valve gear is very simple, there 
being but one cam and two valve rods to mechanically 
operate four valves. The piston is hinged to the con¬ 
necting rod and is provided with rings. The connection 









3 63 


types of tractors 


between piston and connecting rod is exactly in the mid¬ 
dle of the wearing surface, thus equally distributing the 
wear. The connecting rods, one of which is shown in 
igure 5o, are of the I beam type, provided with bab- 



FIGURE 55. 


bitted bearings on the crank pin end, and bronze on the 
end connecting with the piston. 

The cranks, together with the crank pins and crank¬ 
shaft, are made of 40 point carbon steel and propor- 



FIGURE 56. 


tioned according to stationary practice. Figure 56 shows 
the crankshaft and also illustrates the method of lubri¬ 
cating the crank pins by means of oiling discs in which 
the oil is injected and carried out to the pins by centrif- 
ugal force. The cranks are surrounded by a dust-proof 





















164 


TRACTION FARMING 


case. Transmission is arranged in the lower portion of 
the crankcase and is provided with two speeds, forward 
and reverse. 

The gears are of steel. The friction clutch is of the 
periphery type,' provided with one adjustment only. Pos¬ 
itive clutches are in the transmission case, running in 
oil, and arranged so as not to be engaged or disengaged 
while the friction clutch is in service. They are also 
provided with means for preventing the use of more 
than one speed at a time. The governor is arranged on 
the camshaft and is of large diameter, giving a high 
peripheral speed, thus insuring complete control. The 
governor stem passes through the camshaft and operates 
on the throttle. Ignition is jump spark, current being 
supplied by dry batteries and slow speed magneto, gear 
driven. The cooler is of the enclosed type, arranged with 
interchangeable cooling sections, and holds 12 gallons of 
water. Figure 57 shows one of the sections removed. 
Oil can be used in place of water in freezing weather. 



The fan is 24 inches in diameter, with ball bearings 
running in oil. It is driven by a belt from the governor 
case through a set of bevel gears. Controlling levers, 
including steering wheel, speed changing wheel, clutch, 
spark and throttle levers are arranged on one column 









TYPES OF TRACTORS 


165 


within a radius of 12 in., thus providing a complete con¬ 
trolling system. The speed of the tractor can be changed 

from forward to reverse as quick and easy as a steam 
tractor. 

The throttle lever operates directly on the governor, 
changing the speed from 300 to 700 r.p.m. and making 
it possible for the engine to receive a full explosion at 
its minimum speed. By this system the tractor can be 
driven very slowly, at the same time exerting a maximum 
tension on the draw bar. 

The front wheels are 38 ins. in diameter with 8-in. face. 

. The drive wheels are 60 ins. in diameter with 18-in. 
rim. Spokes are flat steel bars firmly riveted to the rim 
and steel hub. Cone or cleat lugs are provided. 

The master gear is of steel, 38 ins. in diameter with 
4-in. face, provided with teeth with 2-in. pitch. 

These engines are also provided with a friction clutch 
pulley to operate belt driven machinery. * 


AVERY FARM TRACTOR. 

Simplicity and compactness appear to be the predom¬ 
inating features in the design of this farm tractor and 
the claim is made by the builders (Avery Company, 
Peoria, Ills.) that the motor is unusually economical 
in fuel consumption as shown by numerous tests and in 
actual practice. The Avery tractors are now built in 
five sizes ranging from an 8-drawbar, 16 belt H. P., to 
a 40-drawbar, 80 H. P. tractor. These sizes are stand¬ 
ardized, that is, they are all built along the same design. 











16G 


TRACTION FARMING 



FIGURE 58. 

Avery 18-Drawbar, 36-Belt H. P. Tractor. 




























types of tractors 


1G 7 


Figure 08 shows a view of an 18-drawbar, 36 belt 

... tractor, to which the following details regarding 
the motive power will apply : 

Number of Cylinders. ^ 

Bore of Cylinders, inches. 51/ 

Stroke, inches . Q ' 2 

Revolutions, per Minute. 

Diameter of Crankshaft Bearings, inches.... 3 y g 

Length of Crankshaft Bearings, inches. 5 P 6 & 7 L 

Diametei of Belt Pulley, inches. 28 

Face of Belt Pulley, inches.’ ’ ’ ’ ’ 8 

Capacity of Small Fuel Tank, gallons. 0 

Capacity of Large Fuel Tank, gallons. 27 

The Motor. The smaller sizes of these tractors are 
equipped with two cylinder motors while the larger sizes 
have four cylinders. In all cases the design of the motor 
follows the standard horizontal opposed cylinder plan 
which is claimed by the builders to lend itself most suc¬ 
cessfully in shape and construction to the requirements 
of traction purposes. This type of motor requires no 
balancing counter weights on the crankshaft. The speed 
is comparatively low; 500 to 650 R. P. M. depending 
upon the size of the tractor. The placing of the motor 
lengthwise of the frame makes it possible to drive the 
gearing direct from the crankshaft without the use of 
bevel pinions. This is well illustrated in Figure 59 , 
which shows a top view of an Avery tractor. Figure 
60 is an enlarged view of a four-cylinder motor with 
the cam case removed. It will be noted that the motor 
is of the valve in head type thus dispensing with the 
valve chambers necessary in the case of T, and L head 
motors. This construction permits the entire explosive 
force of the charge to act directly upon the piston and 



















1G8 


TRACTION FARMING 




FIGURE 59. 


Top View of an Avery Tractor, Showing the Two Speed Gear on the 
Crankshaft and the Double Drive to Both Rear Wheels. 
































types of tractors 


169 


to impel it forward on its working stroke. Figure 61 
is a view of the cam case showing interior construction 
and operating gear. The cylinders are fitted with re¬ 
newable inner walls which when worn can easily be 
replaced with new ones at less expense and trouble than 
reboring the cylinders. Another advantage in connection 
with this system is that in case the water used for 
cooling contains sediment, which collects in the jacket 
space, the removal of the inner wall allows free access 
to the jacket space for cleaning and scraping out all 

deposited scale, and thus insures a free circulation of 
cooling water. 

Avery Fuel System .—Avery tractors are equipped with 
double carbureters, one for gasoline, and the other for 
kerosene. The motor is started on gasoline. When it 
warms up the change from gasoline to kerosene may be 
quickly and easily made by the simple manipulation of 
a lever. No other adjustments are required. An im¬ 
portant feature of this system is the introduction of a 
device, between the carbureter and cylinder called a 
duplex gasifier, which takes the mixture of kerosene and 
air as it comes from the carbureter and further reduces 
the particles of kerosene. It mixes them with the air in 
such a manner so as to form a gas that burns very suc¬ 
cessfully. An auxiliary air inlet is also provided which 
admits the proper quantity of air to insure the perfect 
combustion of fuel. Each tractor is provided with two 
fuel tanks, one for gasoline and one for kerosene, so that 
either fuel may be used at will. These tanks are lo¬ 
cated at a point higher than the carbureter and the fuel 
is fed to the carbureter by gravity, thus dispensing with 
a fuel pump. 

Avery Ignition System .—Each tractor is equipped with 










170 


TRACTION FARMING 



\ 







FIGURE 60. 

Top View of 25-50 H. P. Motor. The 18-36 and 40-S0 H. P. Motors Are Also Built in This Style, 


































TYPES OF TRACTORS 


171 


a high tension magneto with an impulse starter by means 
of which the motor can be started off the magneto. The 
high tension magneto thus eliminates batteries, coils and 
switches together with a large amount of wiring. This 
greatly simplifies the ignition system. 

Lubrication .—The crank case acts as a reservoir for 
the surplus lubricating oil. From the crankcase the 
oil flows down through a strainer to the gear pump which 
forces v it up the pipe into the sight feed glass bottle. It 
then flows down through the pipes to the openings just 



FIGURE 61. 

Cam Case on 25-50 II. P. Motor. 

• above each crank, out of which it pours in a steady 
stream, lubricating the crankshaft bearings, and is then 
thrown by the motion of the cranks into the cylinders 
and lubricates them. A cork gauge shows the operator 
the exact level of the oil in the crank case at all times 
and the glass sight feed enables him to be sure that there 
is a constant flow of oil. 

Cooling System .—The cooling system of the Avery 
tractor operates on the thermo-siphon principle which is 














172 


TRACTION FARMING 


that the heat of the water causes its own circulation. No 
water circulating pump is required, neither is a fan nec- 
essaiy because the radiator through which the water 
passes is exposed on all sides as will be seen by reference 
to Figure 58. The radiator is constructed of vertical 
copper tubes and the exhaust is piped in such a manner 
in connection with the radiator as to create a partial 
vacuum in the hood surmounting the radiator, thus 
causing a draft of cool air to pass up among the tubes 
and out through the reduced opening at the top of the 
hood. 

75 ansmission of Power to Drivers. —There are three 
principal methods in use for transmitting the power of 
the motor to the drive wheels of tractors. These are 
the straight or spur gear, the bevel gear, and the chain 
drive. All Avery tractors are equipped with a combina¬ 
tion of all spur gear transmission and sliding frame. 
They have also a double drive to both rear wheels and 
a two-speed gear on the crankshaft. The entire power 
plant is mounted upon the sliding frame thus making 
possible a very simple two-speed gear, there being but 
one counter-shaft and no complicated speed change gear 
box. The compensating gear is on the outside of the 
frame and easily accessible. When traveling ahead on 
geai tne high speed crankshaft pinion meshes 
directly into the compensating gear, or if it is desired 
to travel ahead on low gear, the low speed crankshaft 
is brought into mesh with the compensating gear. Figure 
62 shows the gears in the proper positions for high 
speed ahead. For backing up the reverse gear is drawn 
back so as to engage the low speed crankshaft pinion 
and the compensating gear, as shown in Figure 63. It 
should be remembered that the low speed gear is double 


FIGURE 62. Shows High Speed Pinion in Mesh with Compensating Gear for Traveling Ahead. 





tfc ■ 






174 


traction farming 









TYPES OF TRACTORS 


175 


the width of the compensating gear and the high speed 
gear slides back and forth over it. This will be apparent 
from a study of Figures 62 and 63. 

All the changes here noted are accomplished by the 
manipulation of levers in the operator’s cab. For belt 
work the sliding frame is pushed forward until the 
crankshaft pinion disengages from the compensating 
gear. The clutch, a view of which is shown in Figure 
64, in combination with the belt wheel brake has three 



FIGURE 64. 

Clutch and Belt Wheel Brake. 

clutch arms. On the ends of these are riveted Raybestos 
brake linings. The shoes push straight out against the 
inner surface of the belt wheel and do not cause any 
end thrust on the crank shaft. 

The belt wheel does not travel with the motor unless 
the clutch is engaged. This makes it possible to put the 
belt on the belt wheel and back into it, by slipping the 












2 76 


traction farming 


Clutch much more easily than it is poss.ble when the 
belt wheel is fast to the shaft and revolves at the motor’s 
spee. urthermore, the same lever which throws the 
c utch in when drawn back, engages a brake on the 
outer surface of the belt wheel by which it can be quicklv 
stopped for engaging the gears or should any accident 

wE” X “» « 

which is being driven. 

Self-guide Attachment-Figure G5 shows the self- 
guide attachment as applied to an Avery tractor when 
used for plowing. This device consists of a pipe frame 
and a caster furrow wheel. When the end of the furrow 

turned Afi' / Caiter ’ a ' low,Il d the tractor to be 
turned. After turning around, another pull on the cord 

will cause the latch to again engage the guide wheel 
when it drops into the furrow. 

Avery Motor Cultivator .—Figure 66 shows this motor 
cu tivator equipped with shovels. This type of cultivator 
is also equipped with discs. It is a two row machin 
and will ordinarily cultivate 16 or 18 acres per day It 

sp a eed a The 0 ”!?'? “ ^ 3 wide variation of 
speed. The cultivator is guided by a single front wheel 

rea - 

^ZTliu^Tt: b ° th . theSe by'means 

any variations in the di “rtLTof" A e g ToVs^ThTfron! 
or guide wheel is operated from the drivers seat bv 
neans of a hand-steering wheel Tli^ ^ 




FIGURE 65. 
Self-Guide Attachment. 


TYPES OF TRACTORS 


177 


e 





















\ 


FIGURE 66. 

Avery Motor Cultivator Equipped With Shovels. 















TYPES OF TRACTORS 


179 


It is claimed by the builders that this cultivator will 
turn around in its own length, when the end of the row 
is reached. The process of turning is rather interesting 
and is as follows: When the end of the row is reached,, 
the operator releases the steering wheel which allows 
the front wheel to act as a caster. At the same time he 
takes hold of the two levers operating the drive wheel 
clutches, and by releasing one clutch and allowing the 
other to remain engaged one drive wheel remains sta¬ 
tionary while the other revolves around it until the cul¬ 
tivator has turned around onto the next two rows. The 
other clutch is then also engaged and both wheels begin 
to travel forward. The operator releases the clutch 
levers and again guides the cultivator with the steering 
wheel. 


TWIN CITY FARM TRACTOR. 

The Twin City tractor manufactured by the Minne¬ 
apolis Steel and Machinery Company is now built in 
four sizes. The largest size is designated the Twin City 
“60.” Its draw-bar pull equals the united pulling force 
of 60 horses. Its motor running alone will develope 
110 belt horse power. The motor is of the six cylinder 
type, the dimensions of the cylinders being inches 
bore by 9 inches stroke. The next largest size is termed 
the Twin City 40, a view of which is shown in Figure 67. 
The draw-bar pull of this, tractor equals the united pull¬ 
ing force of 40 horses, while the belt horse power of 
the motor when running alone equals 65. The design 
of this motor is similar to that of the “60,” except that 
it has four cylinders instead of six, the cylinders being 
of the same dimensions in both cases. The other two 





180 


traction farming 


sizes, viz., the Twin City “25,” and the Twin City “15” 
are with slight variations in detail built along the same 
lines as the “60” and “40” tractors. The Twin City 
tractors are equipped for using either, gasoline, kerosene, 
distillate, or alcohol. The motors are of the vertical 
cylinder four cycle type; the speed in revolutions per 
minute ranging from 500 for the two larger sizes, to 
600 and 650 for the two smaller sizes. A good idea 
of the internal construction of the four cylinder motor 
may be obtained by reference to Figures 68 and 69. 



fr;> t 
■ 






- 








■ 7T 'iFw 





A 1 itJU IXIh t) /. 

The Twin City “40,” 

Each cylinder is cast separate with head, cylinder body 
and valve chambers all in one solid piece. Figure 70 is 
a sectional view of a cylinder casting which shows the 
one piece construction. The water jacket enclosing the 
cylinder is also shown in the cut. 

I a Ires.~ These are made with cast iron heads elec- 












types of tractors 


181 


trically fused to carbon steel stems making them one 
solid piece. All valves are interchangeable and easily 
removable by simply unscrewing caps in the cylinders 
directly over the valve chambers. 

Governor .—The governor is of the fly ball type and 
is housed in an oil-tight dust-proof brass case. It is 
geared directly from the camshaft and controls the speed 



FIGURE 68. 

Twin City “40” Motor, Side Sectional Elevation. 

of the engine within a few revolutions from full load 
to no load by regulating the fuel supply. The governor 
and controlling device are shown to the left of Fig¬ 
ure 68. 

Camshaft .—The camshaft positively operates both the 
intake and exhaust valves through a single tappet, the 




















182 


TRACTION FARMING 



whole being completely housed in the crankshaft case 
directly under the valve chambers. The cams are of a 
special grade of tool steel, hardened and ground. They 
are keyed and pinned on the crankshaft. The cam gears 


FIGURE 69. 

Twin City “40” Motor, End Sectional Elevation. 

are on from solid steel forgings and are hardened. The 
boxes in which the camshaft revolves are so designed 
t lat after removing the cover plates they may be taken 
out or adjusted without disturbing any other part of the 


















/ 


TYPES OF TRACTORS 183 

Ignition .—The ignition system is provided with a high 
tension magneto of standard make positively driven 
direct from the camshaft gear, which insures perfect 
timing and the distribution of current to all the cylinders. 

Lubrication .—The cylinders and crank bearings of the 
motor are lubricated by a multiple force feed system, 
the oil being pumped by a positively driven force pump 
through individual pipes directly to the cylinders and 


# 


FIGURE 70. 

Section of Cylinder. 

bearings. Gears and all other parts are lubricated from 
the main oil reservoir, the oil being carried to the bear¬ 
ings and gears by a separate pipe provided with a special 
lubricating valve. 

Connecting Rod .—The connecting rod is a nickel steel 
forging with an interchangeable hard bronze bushing at 
the piston end, having heavy duty engine babbitt for 
the crank bearing The cap is secured to the rod by 













184 


TRACTION FARMING 


nickel steel bolts provided with slotted nuts and cotter 
pms, which prevent the nuts from coming loose. 

Pistons.— The surfaces of pistons, piston rings and pins 
are finished with a water grinding machine which will 
finish these parts to one-thousandth of an inch. A piston 
can easily be removed through the side of the crank¬ 
case without disturbing any other part of the motor. 



^ . FIGURE 71. 

Connecting Rod, Riston and Cylinder. 

Figure 71 shows the construction of the connecting rod, 
piston and cylinder. 

Crankshaft.— The crankshaft, Figure 72, is a single 
forging of high grade steel. All the journals and crank 
pins are finished by water grinding. Each bearing is 
oiled by an individual oil pipe leading from the force- 
feed oil pump and the crank pins are also lubricated 
through individual pipes from the same oil pump. 











TYPES OF TRACTORS 


185 




The flange of the crankshaft is forged solid with the 
crankshaft and to this flange the flywheel is bolted. 
Figure 73 shows a view of the crankshaft as it appears 
when looking up from beneath the crankcase. 


Figure 74, and is then bolted to the top of the frame 
back of the motor and directly over the rear axle. 

Belt Wheel .—The belt wheel is operated from a pinion 
on the front end of the motor, entirely independent of 


FIGURE 72. 

The Crankshaft. 

Transmission .—The main transmission operated by an 
expanding clutch in the flywheel is assembled complete 
in a single steel casting as shown in the illustration 


FIGURE 73. 













186 


TRACTION FARMING 


the gearing which propels the tractor. By this arrange¬ 
ment the main transmission is relieved of all wear when 
the belt pulley only is running. The forward gears 
are thrown completely out of mesh when not in use. A 
brake operates on the pulley to stop its spinning as soon 
as the clutch is thrown out. 

bevel Gear. The bevel gears are cut from spherical 
sections of high grade steel. Reversing is accomplished 
by shifting the jaw clutch from the rear to the forward 
bevel pinion. Bevel gears are of 4% inch face and main 
di ive pinion and differential gear are 6 inch face. All 
gears run in oil. 

The rear axle is a solid steel shaft of special high grade 
steel called a “live’ axle which turns the wheels. 

Cooling System .—Large water jackets are provided 
not only around the cylinder body, but around the heads 
and valve seats. The circulation system is so designed 
that the cold water enters the jackets at the hottest part 
and leaves at the coolest, which insures most perfect 
cooling under all conditions. The water jacket is so 
designed as to avoid eddies or traps in the circulation 
which would tend to cause deposits or the filling up of 
any part of the cooling space. Plugs, or clean-out holes, 

are provided, so that the jacket may be easily cleaned 
if necessary. 

Piston Pins .—The piston pins are of the tubular type 
and are made of high grade steel hardened and ground 
to a standard gauge. The pin is held in the piston with 
a Woodruff key on one side and on the other with a set¬ 
screw provided with a locking device which absolutely 
prevents it from coming loose. The pistons are made 
of the same close-grained gray iron as the cylinders and 
ate ground to a standard gauge. They are made as 



TYPES OF TRACTORS 


1S7 


light as possible, webbed on the inside so ns to give the 
proper strength, and sufficient surface to conduct away 
the heat from the walls. The top of the piston is shaped 



FIGURE 74. 

Showing Main Transmission Complete from the Clutch in the Engine 

Flywheel to the Bull Pinions. 

























18S 


TRACTION FARMING 


to prevent oil creepage and the accumulation of carbon. 

Drawbar .—The Twin City tractor is equipped with a 
drawbar and also with a plow hitch attachment. The 
drawbar proper is attached to one of the forward cross 
braces of the frame ahead of the rear axle by a powerful 
but elastic coil spring suspension. To the drawbar is 
fastened the detachable plow hitch. 

SAWYER-MASSEY GAS-OIL TRACTOR. 

This farm tractor is now built in three sizes classified 
as follows: 

27 drawbar H. P., 50 belt H. P. 

16 drawbar H. P., 32 belt H. P. 

10 drawbar H. P., 20 belt H. P. 

The motors in all three sizes are of the four-cylinder, 

four-cycle, vertical type. The normal speed of these 
motors ranges from 500 to 600 revolutions per minute. 

The cylinders of the 10-20 tractor are cast in paii s. They 

are 4^4 inches bore by 5% inches stroke. In the 16-32 
tractor the cylinders are also cast in pairs and the di¬ 
mensions are 5 inches bore by 7i/ 2 inches stroke. The 
following description of the Sawyer-Massey tractor ap¬ 
plies mainly to the 27-50 which is the largest size. In 
the 27-50 tractor the dimensions of the cylinders are as 
follows: 6% inches bore by 8 inches stroke. A view 
of this tractor is shown in Figure 75. 

Motor .—The motor (See Figure 76) is of the four- 
cylinder four-cycle vertical type, water cooled. The 
four cylinders give a frequency of impulse which is 
absent from the single and two-cylinder engines, thus 
giving a continuous flow of power to the* gearing and 
lessening strains and torsional stresses. 





































190 


TRACTION FARMING 


Crankcase .—The enclosed crankcase is dust-proof and 
provided with hand-hole openings for inspection. The 
lower half of the crankcase constitutes an oil pan. 
Access to the connecting rod bearings is through re¬ 
movable plates in the bottom of the crankcase. The 



FIGURE 70. 


Sawyer-Massey 


Gas-Oil Motor Showing Oil-mirning Attachment 
Atwater-Kent Ignition. 


and 


lubricating system is so arranged that the oil in the 
crankcase remains at a constant level. 


Crankshaft .—The crankshaft, Figure 77, is drop 
forged from high carbon steel and is provided with 
interchangeable die cast babbitted bearings. These bear¬ 
ings, of which there are five, are 2% inches in diameter, 
one on each side of each crank, the total bearing surface 



















TYPES OF TRACTORS 


191 



being 20y 2 inches. The crank bearings are 2% inches 
in diameter and Sy 2 inches long. 

Pistons .—The pistons (See Figure 78) are 9 inches in 
length and are fitted with four expanding rings with 
butt joints. Each ring is fastened to the piston with 


FIGURE 76a. 

Sawyer-Massey Gas-Oil Tractor Frame Showing Draw Bar Shafting 

Gears and Pulley in Position. 

a pin in order to prevent its turning. An added feature 
is the provision of an oil groove just below the bottom 
jj ring which scrapes off the extra oil and allows it to 
the piston pin bearings. Two extra oil grooves are pro- 
vided at the bottom end of the piston to help keep the 
j oil from getting into the combustion chamber. The pis- 





192 


TRACTION FARMING 


ton is carefully machined and ground to exact measure¬ 
ments. 

Piston Pins .—The piston pins are of generous size, 
being 1% inches in diameter, made of steel, case hard¬ 
ened and ground. They are provided with bronze bush¬ 
ings in the piston, which can be renewed when required. 

Clutch .—The clutch (See Figure 79) is of the expand¬ 
ing shoe type, is self-locking, and is provided with fric¬ 
tion shoes of hard maple which can be easily replaced. 

Bevel Gear Case .—This is cast in two pieces and has 
a hand-hole for inspection purposes, covered with a 



FIGURE 77. 

Sawyer-Massey Gasoline Tractor Crankshaft. 


plate which can be quickly removed. The bevels are 
free on the pulley shaft. The pinion runs between the 
two bevels, and to reverse, a dog clutch is used which 
operates between the two bevels into one of the other 
gears. The shafts of the gear case are provided with 
four double row annular ball bearings which take both 
radial and thrust loads. These bearings prevent any side 
motion and are very much superior to the babbitted 
bearings, as they insure that the bevel gears will always 
remain correctly aligned. The bevel gears are made of 
steel with machine cut teeth. The case is dust proof 
and the gears run in a bath of oil which insures mini- 






TYPES OF TRACTORS 


193 


mum wear on the parts and helps to transmit the power 
with the least possible friction loss. 

S peed. This tractor has two speeds, one of 2 miles 
and the other of 3i/o miles when the motor is running 
600 revolutions per minute. 

Geais. The train gears are placed inside the frame 
and have 4-inch face and 1^4 hich pitch. The low speed 
pinion is cast steel. The intermediate gear has a bronze 
bushing 10 inches long. The traction .wheel gears are 
5 inches face and 2% inches pitch. All pinions are cast 



FIGURE 78. 

Sawyer-Massey Gasoline Tractor Piston, Also Showing Piston, Rings, 
Pm, Connecting Rod and Cap with Die Cast Babbitted 
Bearings Before Assembling. 


steel. The bull pinions are supported by a frame bearing 
close up to the gear. 

Compensating Gear .—The compensating gear is of the 
four pinion type, lubricated by a compression grease cup 
at the end of the shaft. The rim is separate and is 
bolted to the center casting that carries the bevel pin¬ 
ions. In case the gear should need replacement through 
the breaking of a tooth, all that is necessary is the re¬ 
placement of the rim. 

Cylinders .—The cylinders, Figure 80, are made of 
the best grade of gray iron, cast separately with remov- 














194 


TRACTION FARMING 


able heads. Any cylinder can be removed without in¬ 
terfering with others. The water jacket completely sur¬ 
rounds the cylinder and is provided with a removable 



FIGURE 79. 

Sawyer-Massey Gasoline Tractor Clutch Complete with Shaft and Bevel 

Pinion. 


cover for cleaning. The cylinder heads are separate and 
are secured to the cylinders by heavy studs, four to each 
head. They contain the valves and are easily removed 





types of tractors 


195 






for the purpose of grinding valves or cleaning the com¬ 
bustion chamber. 

Valves .—The valves are water-jacketed. They are of 
the poppet type, made of nickel steel, ground and fitted 
after being heat-treated. The valves are mechanically 
operated by overhead rockers and push rods. 



i 






196 


TRACTION FARMING 


Cams and Camshaft .—The camshaft is 1 y 8 inches in 
diameter and is made in one piece with five individual 
bronze bearings. It is so constructed that it may be 
removed by sliding endways from the crankcase. The 
cams are all hardened and ground and secured to the 
shaft by a key and two taper pins. Machine cut spur 
gears of steel are used for camshaft gearing. 

Ignition .—The Atwater-Kent system of ignition is 
employed in conjunction with a six-cell dry battery for 



FIGURE 80. 

6aw ^s p6 lH f Left 

Poits. Also Cylinder Heads, Valve Springs, Cap 

and Nut. 


starting. The magneto is covered with a dust and water 
proof cover, thus preventing short circuits. 

Carbureter .—The carbureter is of the floating ball 
type, having no spring adjustments to make, and only 
one regulation to adjust the amount of fuel. It is 

automatic in its control of the mixture for light and 
heavy loads. 

Governor. The governor is of the centrifugal ball 
type which operates the carbureter and regulates the 


















TYPES OF TRACTORS 


197 



speed of the engine both on the air and the fuel supply. 
It is positive in its action. The speed can be varied 300 
to 600 revolutions per minute and if the load is sud- 






denly released the governor takes care of the engine 
instantly by at once cutting down the supply of fuel and 
air, thus preventing racing. 

















198 


TRACTION FARMING 


Connecting Rods .—These are of I beam type, 18 inches 
between centers with bearings on crankshaft 2%x3%. 
All connecting rod bearings are die cast and are adjust¬ 
able. The lower half of each connecting rod bearing has 
an oil dasher which splashes the oil on the bearings re¬ 
quiring it. Figure 78 shows the construction of the 
connecting rod and its bearings. 

Lubrication .—The lubrication of all bearings is ac¬ 
complished by means of a gear oil pump which is driven 
from the camshaft by a noiseless roller chain and draws 
its oil from a tank through a filter and pumps it into 
a 10-unit sight feed oiler which has oil tubes running to 
crankshaft bearings, magneto gears, and cylinders. 

Cooling System .—The cooling system consumes very 
little water. There are 252-% inch seamless brass tubes, 
32 inches long, used in the form of a radiator and a large 
centrifugal pump which circulates the water around the 
cylinders and through the radiator. It takes but 30 
gallons of water to fill the whole system. The radiator 
is cooled with a 30 inch fan at its back, driven by a belt 
from pump shaft, 


MINNEAPOLIS FARM MOTOR. 

This motor, Figure 81, is of the four-cylinder, four¬ 
cycle type, and the cylinders instead of being in a verti¬ 
cal position, are located parallel with the frame and lie 
horizontal. The cylinders are 7% inches in diameter 
by 9 inches stroke and are cast in pairs, as will be seen 
by a glance at Figure 82. Cylinders and combustion 
chamber are cast together thus dispensing with packed 
joints between cylinders and heads. The whole is secured 


TYPES OF TRACTORS 


199 


to the motor base or crankcase by large heavy bolts and 
the motor base is in turn securely bolted to the frame. 

Ftaine. The frame is stiff and rigid, being constructed 
; of steel I beams reinforced by angle steel, thus giving 
maximum strength with minimum weight. A skeleton 
view of the frame, steel gears and shafting is shown in 
I Figure 83. 







FIGURE 81. 




Left Hand View—The Minneapolis 40 H. P., 4-Cylinder (Horizontal) 

Farm Motor. 

Valves .—The valves and valve stems are of nickel 
steel in one piece, turned and ground to size. Water 
space surrounds the valves keeping them at a uniform 
temperature, thus reducing the chance of warping or 
breaking. Cast plates located in the heads of com¬ 
bustion chambers can be removed to gain access to valves 
for grinding or cleaning. 



















200 


TRACTION FARMING 


Pistons .—The pistons are cast from the same quality 
of gray iron as are the cylinders. Each piston is fitted 
with four cast rings, carefully machined, ground and 
fitted. 

Camshaft and Cams .—One camshaft with cams oper¬ 
ates the intake and exhaust valves. The cams, rollers 
and pins are of ample dimensions. 


Connecting Rods .—The connecting rods are made from 



FIGURE 82. 

View of 40 H. P. Motor. 


I 

forged steel and are of large dimensions. The bearing 
at the cross head end is an inserted brass bushing. The 
crank pin bearing is made of white metal, sy 2 by 3% 
inches. 1 he caps at crank end are shimmed for taking 

up wear. They are secured by four bolts, double nutted 
and pinned. 

Gears .—All transmission and traction gears are steel 
of large dimensions to insure great strength and dura¬ 
bility. I 

In designing and constructing farm motors for the 





TYPES OF TRACTORS 


201 


heavy work required of them in plowing, hauling, etc., 
the traction gears and parts are most important features. 
There are two speeds forward and one reverse, con¬ 
trolled by a single lever. The gear oiler works auto¬ 
matically and regulates the amount of oil to be used. 

Ignition .—Double system jump spark. Two spark 
plugs in each cylinder wired to a Remy high tension 
magneto gear dii\en, and to a set of dry cell batteries 
for starting and emergencies. 



FIGURE 83. 

Frame, Steel Gears and Shafting, Minneapolis 40 H. P. Motor. 

Lubrication. Multiple feed oil pump, chain driven, 
located in plain view of operator, enabling him at all 
times to see, and regulate the amount of oil mechanically 
forced through individual tubes to motor bearings, cyl¬ 
inders and other parts. Splash system in crankcase is 
also used, thus giving two distinct systems of lubrication. 

Cooling system .—Positive circulation by means of a 
large gear driven pump. Radiator holds 50 gallons and 
consists of a top and bottom water tank connected by 
a series of long brass tubes cooled by a large fan. 

The builders of the 40 h. p. motor, the Minneapolis 










traction farming 


Threshing Machine Co., also build a smaller size, 20 
Pv which they call the “universal double opposed’’ 
motor. A good idea of the construction and action of 
this motor may be obtained by an examination of Figure 
84. It will be seen that there are two cylinders lying 
horizontal and facing each other and both apply power 
to the same crankshaft. The details of construction are 
similar to those of the 40 h. p. motor with the exception 



figure S4. 

that the 20 h. p. motor has but two cylinders located on 
opposite sides of the crankshaft while the larger size 
motor has four cylinders lying parallel with each other 
and all on the same side of the shaft. 

AUIyTMAN-TAYLOR gas tractor. 

This farm tractor is now built in three sizes by the 
Aultman-Taylor Company of Mansfield, Ohio. ' The 
smallest size, 18-3C, is rated at 18 drawbar horse power 
and 80 brake horse power, having a motor speed of 600 























































TYPES OF TRACTORS 


203 


R. P. M., which gives a traveling speed on the road of 
2.3 miles per hour. The cylinders in the 18-36 tractor 
are 5 inches bore by 8 inches stroke. The next larger 
size is the 25-50 tractor which has a drawbar pull of 
25 horse power and 50 brake horse power. The speed 
of the motor is 500 R. P. M., which gives a speed of 



FIGURE 85. 


Aultman-Taylor 30-60 Farm Tractor. 


2.28 miles per hour on the roau. The cylinders in the 
25-50 tractor are 6x9 inches. The largest size Aultman- 
Taylor tractor is termed the A. & T. 30-60 tractor having 
a drawbar pull equal to the pulling power of 30 horses 
while the power delivered at the pulley for operating 
machinery equals 60 brake horse power. A view of 
this tractor is presented in Figure 85 and the following 

























204 


■ traction farming 




detailed description applies mainly to this size although 
it can be applied to the other two smaller sizes also 
since the three sizes are similar to each other in design 
except as to dimensions and a few other details. 



Motor. The standard A. & T. motor is of the 
cylinder, four cycle, horizontal type. The cylinders 
cast in pairs and securely bolted to the crank case. 


































TYPES OF TRACTORS 


205 


motor for the 30-60 tractor is equipped with cylinders 
of the following dimensions: 

Bore=7 inches 
Length=9 inches 

% 

The speed of this motor is 500 revolutions per minute 
which gives a speed of 2.2 miles per hour on the road. 

Cylinder Heads .—There is one head for each pair of 
cylinders. The heads are secured to the cylinders by 
heavy studs. A^copper-asbestos gasket is used between 
the head and cylinders. Figure 86 shows the construc¬ 
tion of the cylinders and the water jackets surrounding 
them. 

Pistons .—Figure 87 shows the construction of the 
piston, piston pin and connecting rod. The pistons are 
cast from the same grade of special gray iron as used 
in the cylinders. They are provided with five snap rings 
which are made from a special mixture of hard gray iron 
and are re-turned and ground to the exact size of the 
cylinder after they are cut, which makes them fit closely 
and wear evenly. The piston pins are made of a high- 
grade steel, hardened and ground. The connecting rod 
is a drop forging. The piston end of the rod is fitted 
with a split phosphor bronze bushing which can be ad¬ 
justed by turning up a nut. This bushing can be easily 
removed and a new one put in place in case it is neces¬ 
sary to do so. The crank pin end is babbitted with genu¬ 
ine babbitt and the caps are secured to the rod by turned 
bolts. The bolts are fitted with slotted nuts, which en¬ 
able the operator to get a very fine adjustment and yet 
be absolutely sure that the caps cannot come loose. ' “ 

Valves .—The valves are mechanically opened by 
plungers which are provided with hardened steel rollers^ 










206 


traction farming 


w 



FIGURE 86a. 
30-60 Tractor. 













TYPES OF TRACTORS 


2C7 



FIGURE 87. 

Detail of Piston, Piston Pin and Connecting Rod. 





' 208 


TRACTION FARMING 


operated by pins made of special steel, hardened «nd 
ground.^ 1 he cam rollers work on hardened pins which 
i educe the friction and wear to a minimum. The valves 
which are made of nickel steel are located in the cyl¬ 
inder heads. A good idea of the action of the valve oper¬ 
ating mechanism may be obtained by reference to Figure 

8b. The valves are accurately timed before leaving the 
factory. 

# Th e Motor Base or Crankcase .—This is fitted with an 
oil-tight dust-proof cover which when removed permits 
the cranks, camshaft, connecting rods and pistons to be 
withdiawn from the crankcase without disturbing any 
other paits or adjustments. The lower bearings of the 
crankshaft and camshaft are cast as a part of the crank¬ 
case, thus insuring perfect alignment. The bearings are 
all babbitted with genuine babbitt metal. The main bear¬ 
ings are adjustable from the outside of the case and 
may be adjusted while the motor is running. The crank 
pin bearings are also babbitted and the caps are secured 
to the connecting rods by bolts provided with slotted 
nuts, thus permitting very fine adjustment and absolutely 
preventing the nuts from becoming loose. The crankcase 
cover is provided with two large hand holes, the covers 
of which are kept in place by clamps and hand wheels. 
All adjustments on connecting rod caps and bearing caps 
can be made through the hand holes, so that it is not 
necessary to remove the entire cover except when the 
crankshaft, pistons or camshaft is to be taken out. Fig- 
uie 89 shows the motor base or crankcase with the cover 
removed, exposing the crankshaft and camshaft. 

Speed control. The speed of the motor is automatic¬ 
ally controlled by a centrifugal governor, which is driven 
by gears enclosed in the crankcase and absolutely pro- 





FIGURE 88. 

Quarter View of Power Plant—Left-Hand. 




210 


traction farming 




FIGURE 89. 

Motor Base or Crank Case. 


























TYPES OF TRACTORS 211 

tected from dust. The governor acts directly upon the 
throttle valve and the speed may be varied from one to 
five hundred revolutions by simply moving a lever which 
is set near the steering wheel. 

Ignition .—Both battery and magneto systems are pro¬ 
vided for ignition. The battery consists of 10 dry cells, 
hermetically sealed in water-tight cases, so that there is 
no possibility of their becoming damaged by moisture and 
will last for an indefinite time when the battery is used 
for starting only. 

The carbureter is of the floating ball type; has no 
spring air valves; no spring adjustments and in fact re¬ 
quires no adjusting whatever except to change the 
amount of gasoline fed to the motor. Figure 90 shows 
a view of the carbureter. 

The magneto is of the high tension type and of the 
j simplest construction, having no brushes or commutators 
to adjust. It is positively driven by cut gears direct from 
; the camshaft of the motor and is provided with water 
J and dust-proof cover. 

The spark plugs are set in the cylinder heads. Any 
type of standard spark plug can be used and they are 
easily removable. 

Lubrication .—All the bearings including the crank pins 
and cylinders are properly lubricated by force-feed lub- 
i rication. A multiple force-feed oil pump forces a definite 
! amount of oil through an individual tube to each bearing 
| and also to each cylinder. The crank pins are positively 
j oiled by centrifugal rings attached to the cranks. These 
rings receive a portion of the oil from the force-feed 
oil pump and carry the same to the crank pin bearings. 
The transmission gearing is also oiled by the force- 
feed system. 







212 


TRACTION FARMING 


FIGURE 90. 

Carbureter. Aultman-Taylor Tractor. 

Controlling Mechanism.—The forward and backward I ' 1 
movement of the engine, also the belt pulley, is con¬ 
trolled by two clutches which are operated by one lever. 



The system of gear transmission employed in the 
A. & T. tractor is of the plain simple spur gear type of 
construction, the material employed being steel. 













TYPES OF TRACTORS 


A Lo- 


- The forward traction clutch is of the universal control- 
| ling type and is provided with three shoes which are 
interchangeable and may be replaced in a very few 
minutes. The clutch is very easily adjusted, always 
under entire control of the operator, enabling him to 
move the engine any desired distance he chooses. The 
clutch is self-locking so that it.requires no effort to hold 
the clutch in or out. 

The backing-up gear and the belt pulley are operated 
by another clutch which is of the internal expanding 
type and clutches directly on the inner side of the pul¬ 
ley rim. This clutch is provided with hard wood shoes 
and is easily adjustable. 

Dimensions and Details .—The following measurements 
apply to the A. & T. 30-60 tractor. 

Dimensions Over All—Extreme height to top of ex¬ 
haust stack, 11 feet 6 inches. Extreme length of engine, 
18 feet 4 inches. Extreme width with 24-inch drivers, 
131 inches with extension. 

.Dimensions and Measurements—Countershaft bear¬ 
ings, 3% inches diameter by 11 inches long. Crank¬ 
shaft bearings, 3inches diameter by 7 inches long on 
fly wheel side; 4% inches diameter in center of crank¬ 
case; 7 inches long on drive pulley side. 

Intermediate shaft bearings, 3 inches diameter by 7 1 /k 
inches long. 

Rear Axle Dimensions'— i 1 /^ inches diameter by 103 
inches long. 

Camshaft—1% inches diameter, drop forged steel; 
. cams iy 8 -inch face, case hardened. 

Camshaft Bearings—Three in number, 1% inches 
diameter. . v 







214 


traction farming 


Crank Pins—Same diameter as crankshaft, 3 % inches 
in diameter, by 3 y 4 inches long. — 

Radiator of the tubular type, cooled by two 24-inch 
diameter fans, driven by ample belt. Tank is 42 inches 
diameter by 36 inches long, and has 196 2-inch tubes 
Water capacity, 120 gallons. 

. Cr a nk shaft-—Highcarbon steel, forged from solid 
piece, 3% inches diameter. 

Cylinders—Four in number, 7x9 inches, cast in pairs, 
placed horizontally in the engine. 

Exhaust—The exhaust gases pass out through the 
exhaust valves in cast-iron manifolds—these in turn dis¬ 
charging into one main pipe running up and discharging 
above canopy. 

Fuel Sixty-gallon gasoline tank placed under the 
platform. 

Gearing Crank shaft pinion and intermediate for for¬ 
ward movement are steel, 1 %-inch pitch, 4 %-inch face. 

. Crankshaft pinion for backward movement, steel 13 /. 
inch pitch, 3-inch face. 

. Interm ed'iate gear meshing in differential, steel 13 /_ 
inch pitch, 4%-inch face. ? 

Differential gear, semi-steel, 13,4-inch pitch, 4 l/ 2 -inch 


, Bul1 P' nion and bull gear, 214 -inch pitch 
face. 


5%-inch 


Bull pinions all of steel; bull gears semi-steel, 
live Pulley is 24 inches diameter by 11-inch face. 

the caterpillar tractor. 


The distinctive feature of this tractor is its chain tyr 
of wheel which is really not a wheel at all but an endle< 
track that the engine first lays down and then rolls ovt 







TYPES OF TRACTORS 


215 


and picks up again. This gives the tractor a roadbed 
of steel to travel on and not one of yielding soil or 
shifting sand. The Caterpillar tractor is built by the 
Holt Manufacturing Company of Stockton, California 
and appears to be well adapted to travel on all kinds of 
roads and especially rough roads filled with ruts and 
bumps or roads where the soil is soft and yielding. 
Figure 91 shows a view of this tractor. 



FIGURE 91. 

Caterpillar Tractor “75.” 

The motor is of the 4-cylinder, 4-cycle, valve-in-head 
type. The cylinders are cast separately and the cylinder 
heads are removable. Large water jackets surround 
both cylinders and heads, the water circulating close to 
the valves. 

The fuel normally used in the Caterpillar motor is 
California Engine Distillate and is obtained from as- 


















216 


TRACTION FARMING 


phaltum base crude oil* found in California. It is a fuel 
heaviei than gasoline and lighter than kerosene. 

This tractor is now built in five distinct*sizes, viz., 
the Caterpillar “75,” “60,” “55,” “45” and “30.”’ The 
figures in each case indicate the brake horse power of 
the motor for that particular size, as for instance, “75” 
indicates 75 brake horse power, “45” indicates 45 brake 
horse power. The motors in these tractors are all simi- 
lai in general construction and design, the parts varying 
in size for the different horse power required. 



. The descriptions and instructions given in the follow¬ 
ing pages relative to the Caterpillar type of tractor apply 
mainly to the two sizes “75” and “45,” although the 
valuable and timely hints and instructions regarding the 
care and operation of these tractors, which have been 
kindly furnished by the Holt Manufacturing Company. 

wj also in many cases apply in the operation of other 
types of gas-oil tractors. 


FIGURE 92. 

Caterpillar “45” Track Assembly. 





















TYPES OF TRACTORS 


217 


The Caterpillar Track .—It is always the safe rule to 
start at the foundation when building a structure and 
there will be no departure from this rule in the present 
instance, therefore, the track of the Caterpillar will be 
described first. Figure 92 shows the track assembly 
of the “45” tractor. This track consists of a flexible 
endless belt composed of steel links connected by case- 
hardened steel sleeves and case-hardened steel track 
pins. Each unit link combines a corrugated shoe or 
ground contact surface with a double rail over which the 
truck rollers run. The shoe which is a part of this one- 
piece unit is eight inches in width. For other widths of 
track, corrugated pressed steel shoes of different widths 
as required are provided to fit over the eight inch shoes 
and bolt to them. Twenty-inch shoes are regularly pro¬ 
vided, although other sizes can be supplied if necessary. 

The unit construction of the “45” track—making the 
rails, links and eight-inch shoes in one piece—provides 
the simplest and most rigid construction possible. It is 
impossible for the sleeves to work loose. There is prac¬ 
tically no wear on any part of this unit, the only wear 
in the entire track construction being confined to the 
case-hardened steel sleeves, which are pressed into 
reamed holes in the links, and to the case-hardened pins, 
which are held stationary by means of a head on one end 
and a keeper pin in the other end. All wear is thus con¬ 
fined to easily and cheaply replaceable parts. 

The shoes are made heavy enough to withstand the 
severest usage; they are subject to very little wear and 
are extremely durable, because there is no sliding be¬ 
tween the shoes and the ground, the track being simply 
laid down and picked up again, one section at a time. 
The rails each have face 2% inches wide, and the 




218 


TRACTION FARMING 


top of the rail is made very thick and heavy, which gives 
a wearing surface equal to that of the ordinary railroad 
rail, and they are correspondingly durable. They are 
six inches high and have openings at the side so that 
any dirt falling into the track is forced out through the 
openings by the teeth of the track driving sprocket. 

The track has more than six feet of its length in con¬ 
tact with the ground. With the standard twenty-inch 
track, therefore, there is a total bearing surface on the 
ground of from 3200 to 4000 square inches, and a ground 



pressure of only 4.3 to 5.4 pounds per square inch. With 
the 28-inch tiack, the total track area on the ground is 
from 4480 to 5600 square inches and the ground pres¬ 
sure between 3.1 and 3.85 pounds per square inch. In 
either case, the pressure is much less than that of the 
foot of either man or horse. 

Caterpillar Trucks. —The truck on each side consists 
of five truck wheels spring mounted from the main 
frame > a driving sprocket at the rear, four upper sup- | 
porting rollers and a blank sprocket or idler at the for¬ 
ward end. The sprocket at the rear meshes with the j 
space blocks in the track and drives the tractor. Track 











TYPES OF TRACTORS 


219 


carrier rollers support the upper side of the track as it 
is carried forward and the idler carries the track over 
and lays it down, one section at a time. There are four 
pairs of track carrier rollers for supporting the upper 
side of each track. Three of these pairs of rollers are 



mounted on the frame while the fourth one is mounted 
on the. front idler fork. All these rollers have the chilled 
type of bearings. 

The truck wheels travel on the smooth steel rails of 
ifje track links and carry the entire weight of the tractor. 










TRACTION FARMING 



220 

The truck frame is built in two sections which are hinged 
to each other, the rear section carrying three truck 
wheels, and the forward section carrying two truck 
wheels and the idler. The front idler is held in place ; 
by a forked thrust rod having a screw adjustment bv 
means of which the idler may be moved forward or 
backward as required to maintain the track at the proper 
tension. A radius arm holds the truck frame in place 
and keeps the proper space relation between it and the j 
drive sprocket. The tracks are lubricated by a gravity 


FIGURE 95. 

Independent Track Control Assembly, with Clutch Members. 


feed system controlled by hand valves within convenient 
reach of the operator. Figure 93 shows the track drive. | 
> ^ ruck Wheels .—All the weight of the tractor is car- ; 
ried on ^mall truck wheels, five double wheels on each 
side. These wheels have chilled faces so as to provide 
a good wearing surface. They revolve on special high 
carbon heat treated gudgeons and are fitted with phos¬ 
phor bronze bearings of ample length, each bearing 
being lubricated by oil through the gudgeon. The hubs 1 
are counter-bored to receive washers which ar'e ground 
to exact size, these washers acting as a thrust bearing, 
and as they make a ground joint for the truck bearing 
all sand and dust are thus kept out. A second set of 

\ y 











FIGURE 96. 

Top View Showing Master Clutch, Transmission Case and Gears,. 
Bevel Pinion and Main Bevel Gear. 

parts. The track drive sprocket turns on this shaft and 
has an exceptionally long phosphor bronze bearing. 

The standard tread is six feet for all track widths.. 
The sprocket and gear are independently detachable from 
the sleeve which carries the bushings. The bushings are 
of the floating type and are so constructed with oil 
grooves and oil levels that perfect lubrication is assured 


TYPES OF TRACTORS 221 

dust washers or fenders goes over these first washers 
as an extra precaution, so no dirt can possibly enter the 
truck bearings. 

Rear Track Shaft .—The rear track shaft is made of 
31/2 per cent nickel steel. It is 3^4 inches in diameter 
and is clamped rigidly to the underside of the unit trans¬ 
mission case. This insures perfect alignment with other 











222 


TRACTION FARMING 


at all times. Two large bushings are used for each 
sleeve. Figure 94 shows an interior view of the unit 
transmission case. 

Independent Track Control .—The independent drive of 
the Caterpillar “45” consists of two simple cone clutches, 
each of which controls independently its corresponding 
side of the Caterpillar track. These clutches are con- j 
stantly held in engagement by means of springs and only 
when a turn is to be made are they disengaged. Figure 
95 shows the parts of the independent track control. 
Within convenient reach of the operator is a hand lever 
which, with only slight pressure forward or back, dis- 
engages these clutches. When this lever is thrown for¬ 
ward, a left-hand turn is made and when pulled back, a 
right-hand turn is made. If an extremely short turn is 
desired, one track can be stopped entirely by means of 
easy-acting foot brakes and thus the tractor can be 
turned in its own length a feature which is of vital im¬ 
portance in small fields, in orchards, and on narrow 
roads. 

Master Clutch .—From the motor, power is transmitted 
to the cut-steel gear transmission by a simple and sub¬ 
stantial clutch of the multiple dry disc type. This clutch 
consists of two large bronze discs operating between 
three discs of soft gray iron. The bronze discs are car¬ 
ried in a steel ring, which is driven by case-hardened lugs 
in the flywheel rim. The weight of the clutch itself is 
carried by a self-aligning annular ball bearing mounted 
on the end of the crankshaft. The entire clutch adjust¬ 
ment is completely accessible. Free and universal action 
between flywheel and transmission is assured by means 
of this special design, and all difficulties from non-align¬ 
ment are avoided. This clutch will successfully trans- 








types of tractors 


223 


mit twice the power developed by the motor, consequently 
long life is assured. Owing to its extremely large sur- 
faces and clean-cut design, it is very easy and positive 
in action. It is capable of starting the full lead without 
jerk or jar. Figure 96 shows a top view of the clutch 
and also the transmission case. 

Transmission .—The entire transmission of Caterpillar 

parts run in 
dily accessi- 



FIGURE 97. 

Two-Speed and Reverse Transmission 


ble. On the direct speed, at which speed practically all 
the work is done, the drive is direct, the transmission 
gears transmitting no power whatever. 

All gears and pinions are of the best cut steel and case- 
hardened. They run continually in a bath of oil, the 
unit case being dust-proof. High-speed thrusts are taken 
on ball bearings; slow-speed thrusts are cared for by 
a steel—bronze-steel washer combination. All of the 














224 


TRACTION FARMING 


washers float on the shaft. A semi-sectional interior 
view of the transmission is shown in Figure 97. 

The Motor .—As previously noted, the motor or prime 
mover of the Caterpillar type tractor is of the vertical, 
four cylinder, four cycle valve-in-head type. The cyl¬ 
inders are cast separately with removable heads, both 
cylinders and heads being surrounded by water jackets 
of ample proportions. The bore of the cylinders for the 
45 motor is six inches and the stroke is seven inches. 
The motor develops its full rated power at a speed of 
600 R. P. M. 



FIGURE 98. 




A Section of the Built-Up Steel Drive Chain Used on Caterpillar “75." 


Valves.—Figure 100 shows one of the cylinder heads 
with one valve removed, exposing the valve seat. These 
valves are made with cast iron heads having stems of 
mild steel. The stem is first threaded in the valve head 
and then electrically welded into place, producing a per¬ 
fect union between the two metals. The upper end of 
the threaded portion of the valve stem is case hardened. 
Two case hardened lock nuts are provided for adjust¬ 
ments. The following dimensions for diameter of valve 
openings, intake and exhaust valve lifts in inches are 
given: 








TYPES OF TRACTORS 


225 


Motor dimensions. 7%"x8 
Diameter of valve 

openings .2%" 

Intake valve lift in 

inches .%" 

Exhaust valve lift 
in inches. tV' 


7"x8‘ 

" 6"x7 

" 5 %"x6' 

” 4h2"x5 : /fi 

2%" 


2" 

1%" 

%" 

W 

r 

%" 

9 ft 

16 

Tz" 

fY” 

fY" 



FIGURE 99. 

Caterpillar “75” Motor. 

The valve stems should be lubricated four times a day 
with a mixture one-half cylinder oil and one-half kero¬ 
sene. This penetrates better than straight cylinder oil. 
The lubrication of valve stems and guides should never 
be neglected. 































226 


TRACTION FARMING 


The valve stem guide, which is the part subjected to 
wear, can be readily removed by driving it out of the 
cylinder head and a new one can then be inserted. Worn 
valve stem guides are a direct source of loss of power 
to the motor. 

Crankcase .—The crankcase is cast as a solid unit of 
close grained gray iron and contains five rigid supports 



FIGURE 100. 

Cylinder Head of Caterpillar Motor with One Valve Removed. 

for the main crank bearings, the seats for which are 
all bored at one operation, giving absolute rigidity and 
perfect alignment to all bearings. These bearings are 
2 13/16 inches in diameter and are lined with genuine 
armature metal containing a high per cent of tin. The 
rear bearing is 7 T % inches long, the front bearing 5 T \ 
inches long and the three center bearings are 314 inches 


long. 


Crankshaft. The crankshaft is 2 13/16 inches in 
diameter having five bearings, the total length of which 


















types OF TRACTORS 227 

Connecting Rods. —The connecting rods are drop 
forged, accurately machined and balanced, and are thor¬ 
oughly tested for strength. The upper ends of the con¬ 
necting rods ai e bushed with phosphor bronze, making 
a perfect bearing for the wrist pin. 

The wrist pins are made of cold drawn tubing 1 15/16 
inches in diameter. They are made hollow to allow for 
expansion and are bolted solidly in the pistons. 

Pistons and Rings. —One of the most important mem¬ 
bers of the internal combustion engine is the piston. 
Upon the proper working of the piston with which each 
cylinder is fitted depends in a greater or less degree 
the power and efficiency of the motor. The piston is 
l equired to travel back and forth at a high velocity with¬ 
in the cylinder and during a certain portion of everv 
fourth stroke it is subjected to a very high temperature, 
estimated to be about 2700 degrees Fahr., nevertheless 
in order to perform its proper functions it must main¬ 
tain a gas tight fit against the cylinder walls. Since the 
piston itself cannot be made an absolute fit within the 
cylinder owing to the extremely high temperatures to 
which it is subjected and the consequent expansion 
thereof, some provision must be made not only for tak¬ 
ing care of this expansion but also for maintaining a 
proper working fit in the cylinder and thus preventing 
the gases from escaping past the piston. The most suc¬ 
cessful method of effecting this condition of tightness is 
to cut slots in the outer surface of the piston, into which 
expanding rings are fitted. This method has been 
adopted by all manufacturers and while there may be 
many variations in details, still the principle of the ex¬ 
panding ring is followed in all cases. The following de¬ 
tailed description of the style of piston with which the 





/ 


228 TRACTION FARMING 

standard Caterpillar motor is equipped will serve to 
explain the principles of its construction. The expansion 
of the piston is taken care of in two ways: 

1st. The piston is tapered from the bottom of the 
third piston ring to the top of the piston. 

2nd. The body of the piston is made a certain amount 
smaller than the cylinder it works in. The sides of the 
piston body are parallel. When the working tempera¬ 
tures expand the piston, it finally fits the cylinder with 
a sliding fit. The film of lubricating oil occupies the 
clearance between the piston and cylinder wall. At the 
bottom of the piston three grooves are cut to carry the 
lubricant up the cylinder walls and to the piston rings. 

The slots for receiving the rings are three in num¬ 
ber and are in the upper portion of the piston. These 
slots are cut from five-sixteenths to seven-sixteenths 
of an inch in width, depending upon the size of the 
motor. They are accurately cut at right angles to the 
axis of the piston and are not allowed to vary more 
than .001 (one-thousandth) of an inch in width. A file 
must never be used on the piston ring slots to secure 
the fit of piston rings. 

When a piston ring is inserted in the piston slot, it 
should be free to move horizontally without the least 
bind, but the vertical movement (lengthways of the pis¬ 
ton) should not exceed .001 (one-thousandth) of an 
inch. Under the heat of operation the piston ring ex¬ 
pands and almost closes the piston ring slot, the lubricat¬ 
ing oil film being the final seal. This prevents the gases 
from passing around the piston ring. This is an im¬ 
portant point, as much so as is the fit of the piston ring 
against the cylinder wall. 

The piston rings are made eccentric, that is, the centers 








TYPES OF TRACTORS 


229 


of the inside and outside diameters of the ring do not 
coincide, thus one part of the ring is thicker than the 
rest. This eccentricity keeps the ring in its circular 
shape and gives uniform pressure against the cylinder 
wall. When the outside of the ring has been accurately 
fitted to the cylinder it is split, that is, a diagonal cut is 
made across the body of the ring. This allows it to 
be spread sufficiently to permit of its insertion into 
one of the slots in the piston. Once in the slot, the out¬ 
side diameter of the ring is on a true center with ref¬ 
erence to the cylinder when the diagonal cut is nearly 
closed. The amount of the separation of the split in a 
piston ring varies with the different size motors, and in 
addition the separation of the split in the top ring is 
nearly twice that allowed for the second and third rings. 
For the large motors, the separation of the split of 
the piston ring when tried in the cylinders for the sec¬ 
ond and third rings is the thickness of one metal shim 
of the kind in the lower connecting rod bearing, while 
the top ring is allowed twice that amount. A metal 
shim in the lower connecting rod bearing of a Caterpillar 
motor is .012 (twelve-thousandths) of an inch, and 
makes a very convenient guide to gauge the separation. 

For the smaller size motors, this distance should be 
somewhat less. A small mirror is a very convenient aid 
to inspecting the ring while fitting in the cylinder. 

Piston rings are made from special selected close- 
grained iron. They have hard work to do and should by 
all means receive efficient lubrication, and an oil that 
will stand up against the high temperatures occurring 
within the cylinder, and still be fluid enough to reach the 
piston rings must be provided. The oil film is the final 
seal between the piston ring, piston and cylinder. 




230 


TRACTION FARMING 



FIGURE 101. 

Fan and Copper Finned-Tube Radiator. 

laige capacity, a substantial centrifugal pump and a 
fan mounted directly behind the radiator. Both radiator 
and cylinder water jackets are so constructed that they 
can be completely drained to prevent freezing. The 
radiator, a view of which is shown in Figure 101, is 
built in sections and it is an easy matter to remove, re¬ 
pair, and replace single sections. 

Belt Pulley.— The power or belt pulley is driven by a 


Governor .—The governor of the Caterpillar “45” 
motor is of the fly-ball throttling type, mounted on the 
end of the camshaft and is very simple and substantial. 
A set screw and lock nut, readily accessible, gives any 
adjustment desired. 

Cooling System .—The cooling system consists of a 
large coppei radiator of special design, a water tank of 












TYPES OF TRACTORS 


231 


pair of large bevel gears mounted in a unit case and 
running in oil. All bearings are large and long, while 
side thrust is taken by ball thrust bearings of generous 
size. The gears are made of the finest steel, carefully 
cut, finished and case-hardened. The pulley is engaged 
by means of a convenient hand-controlled clutch of 
multiple disc type. 

Lubrication .— Two systems of lubrication are in use 
on the Caterpillar motor. These are the constant level 
splash lubricating system and an auxiliary force feed sys¬ 
tem. The operation is as follows: In the lower portion 
of the crankcase is an oil reservoir. In the bottom of 



FIGURE 102. 

High Tension Magneto Used on Caterpillar “45.” 

this reservoir is mounted an oil pump of the gear type; 
driven by a vertical shaft from the camshaft. Oil is 
pumped from the reservoir to an oil sight feed directly 
in front of the operator and is then distributed by four 
large leads to pits under each connecting rod. The con¬ 
necting rods dip into the pits at each stroke and throw’ 
a fine lubricating spray over all working parts. In these 
pits are located overflow pipes which prevent the oil 
from rising over a given level and flooding the engine. 
As there is a steady stream of oil flowing into the pits 
at all times, a plentiful supply is assured. 















232 * TRACTION FARMING 

To supplement the splash system, and to make doubly 
sure that cylinder walls and pistons receive the proper 
oiling at all times, the Caterpillar motor is fitted with an 
auxiliary force-feed oiler. This oiler is mounted at the 
front of the motor and has four leads, one to each 
cylinder. By using this force-feed oiler, absolute free¬ 
dom from lubricating troubles is secured. 


FIGURE 103. 

Cross Section Model TK Magneto. 

The following instructions relative to the care of the 
oil in the crankcase are supplied by the Holt Manufac¬ 
turing Company. 

“The oil in the crankcase should not be used after it 
has become so thin that it will pass close-fitting piston 
rings. Examine the oil in the bottom of the pits for 
carbon and sediment and determine if the oil has a gritty 
or harsh feeling to the hand. If it has, wash the crank- 



















































































TYPES OF TRACTORS 


233 








case thoroughly with kerosene and 
of oil.” 


put in a new supply 


Ignition .—The ignition system used on the Caterpillar 
motor is of the latest high-tension type. This comprises 
a gear-driven magneto, equipped with automatic starting 
device and retard switch. No batteries are used. The 
entire system is very simple, and efficient at all motor 
speeds. \ 

The Holt Mfg. Company in their service bulletins 
describe two types of high tension magnetos in connec¬ 
tion with the system of ignition used on Caterpillar 
motors. One of these is termed the “HK K-W” mag- 



t 


FIGURE 104. 
Circuit Breaker. 


neto, and the other is termed the “TK K-W” high ten¬ 
sion magneto and the following descriptions and illus¬ 
trations, will apply mainly to the latter. Figure 102 
shows a full view of this magneto in its dust-proof case. 
Figure 103 shows a cross section of the magneto with 
the impulse starter removed. The following instructions 
for the correct installation and care of the magneto, im¬ 
pulse starter and other apparatus pertaining to the igni¬ 
tion system and the operation of the Caterpillar motor 
are furnished by the builders (Holt Mfg. Co.). “Model 
TK K-W magneto must be mounted on a brass or alum¬ 
inum base or separated from an iron base by at least 






234 


TRACTION FARMING 


half an inch of non-magnetic material. If mounted on 
an iron base, use a brass or fiber separator with brass 
bolts. 

t>e sure that bolts are not too long. They should go 
into the magneto only three-eighths of an inch; otherwise 
they will break through the base and strike the rotor/’ 
“Never oil the magneto with cylinder oil. Use 3 in 1 
or household lubricant. Apply three drops to each bear¬ 
ing once every fifteen days. For the bearings, one oil 
hole will be found on top of distributor housing which 
oils both the front main bearing and the distributor bear- 
ing while the other hole will be found on the rear bearing 
cap. Oil the wicking in the roller number 68 once every 
ten days with one drop of oil. Do not over-lubricate 
the magneto. Never use an oil can to apply oil to the 
magneto. Apply oil with a toothpick or make an oiler 
out of a medium weight wire by filing a notch like a 
crochet hook, near the end. This will enable you to 
measure the oil and not guess at it.” 

Figure 104 shows the circuit breaker which is remov¬ 
able for inspection and adjustment. The upper bar 
carrying the adjusting screw is the member insulated 
from the circuit breaker. The upper bar in Model TK 
carries the primary current and must not be short cir¬ 
cuited by breaking the insulating washers, bushings or 
plate, nor must the circuit breaker cover be broken or 
checked. The circuit breaker both inside and out must 
be kept scrupulously free from excess oil. Be sure 
thumb nut which holds cover on circuit breaker box is 
tight, as this is a primary conductor to the breaker 
points. To remove the circuit breaker it is only neces¬ 
sary to push aside the contact spring when the entire 
circuit breaker may be withdrawn. 










TYPES OF TRACTORS 


235 


The breaker points should always meet square. The 
correct separation of the breaker points is one-sixty 
fourth of an inch. A gauge is provided with every mag¬ 
neto and the separation of the points mu^st always be 
tested and not guessed at. Be sure that the spring ten¬ 
sion on the breaker arm is good and that the points come 
together in a snappy manner. The circuit breaker must 
be kept free from excess oil. Undue pressure must not 
be exerted in seating the two screws in the upper con¬ 
tact bar so as to cause breaking or fracture of insulating 



FIGURE 105. 
Impulse Starter. 


washers or bushings. If the cam does not operate the 
breaker bar, the adjusting screw on the contact bar is 
advanced too far. If the lower breaker bar does not 
operate freely, the screw at the lower left hand corner 
of the circuit breaker has been adjusted too tightly. 

Impulse Starter .—The impulse starter does away with 
the necessity of batteries and spark coil. It is so de¬ 
signed that a catch holds the rotor in the magneto dur¬ 
ing 80 degrees of travel, then is tripped and thrown 
ahead at the rate of 500 R. P. M-., assuring a very hot 














































236 


traction farming 


spark which is in time with the motor. Figure 105 
shows the impulse starter. Its operation is as follows: 
by piessing down on back end of ratchet catch lock 
TS-h, ratchet catch TS-11 will be released and allowed 
to engage with notch on ratchet TS-5, which is keyed 
to the rotor, holding it stationary while case TS-2 is 
moving 80 degrees and compressing spring TS-23. 
When the lug on case TS-2 moves around to release 
catch TS-11, the rotor is thrown ahead with a rush, 
causing an exceedingly hot spark to be delivered. This 
will continue until a pre-determined engine speed has 
been reached, when the starter is thrown out of engage¬ 
ment and the magneto is driven direct through the starter 
coupling. 

The instructions for applying the impulse starter to 
model TK magneto are as follows: Remove the two 
screws shown at “A” and insert two studs TS-14. 
Bracket TS-10 is mounted against the face of these 
studs followed by washers TS-12 and ratchet catch TS-11 
on right side and ratchet catch lock TS-S on left side, 
these parts being held in position by screw TS-15 on 
rigid side and screw TS-16 on left side for clockwise 
rotation, TS-9, 11, 15, 16 are reversed for anti-clockwise 
rotation. The starter case completely assembled is 
s ipped on taper shaft and held in position by nut T-76 
and cotter pin. To replace the spring, remove nut T-76 
and withdraw case TS-S which will expose spring TS-23 
and spring TS-24 which can then be taken out and re¬ 
placed easily. On the inside of case TS-3 a lug will be 
found which must be inserted between the two springs 
when replacing case. This can be accomplished very 
easily by leaving spring TS-33 stick out about half way 
then by setting the lug against spring and turning the 










TYPES OF TRACTORS 


237 


case it will slide into position. To adjust the speed at 
which the starter throws out, loosen lock nut TS-20 and 
turn adjusting screw TS-18 up or down until properly 
set and then lock with nut. Keep Impulse Starter free 
from gummy oil and any foreign substance. Clean oc¬ 
casionally with gasoline. Oil with 3-in-l or Household 
Lubricant. 

To Time Magneto to Motor .—Figure 106 is a wiring 
of model TK for a four-cylinder motor, the cylinders 
being numbered 1, 2, 3, and 4. The piston in cylinder 



Wiring Diagram Showing Firing Position of Magneto. (Cylinder 

No. 1.) 

1 is in firing position. The method of timing the mag¬ 
neto to the motor is as follows; referring to Figure 106: 

First. Have cylinder No. 1 at the highest point of 
compression. Have Oldham coupling on magneto shaft 
disconnected. Place circuit breaker in full retard posi¬ 
tion (as shown at AA in Figure 106). 

Second. Turn magneto shaft by free end of Old¬ 
ham coupling until the distributor segment is on brush 
No. 1. (The segment can be seen through the window 
of the distributor block.) Continue turning shaft till 
breaker points are just commencing to separate. This is 










































238 


TRACTION FARMING 


firing point of the magneto. The Oldham coupling 
should be bolted to place at this point. 

Third. When No. 1 cylinder is all right, proceed to 
connect the others as follows: All Holt Motors fire 1, 
2 , 4, 3. The connections on the distributor block are 
numbered 1, 2, 3, 4. These do not refer to the cylinders. 
Connect cylinder No. 2 to terminal No. 2, then connect 
terminal No. 3 to cylinder No. 4 and terminal No. 4 to 
cylinder No. 3. 

Ihe following instructions apply in the care of the 
TK distributor. 

Carbon brushes are used, past which the copper seg¬ 
ment carrying the high tension current passes. Once a 
month clean out the distributor with a soft cloth moist¬ 
ened with gasoline. 

See that all nuts are tight; that the retainer spring 

is making good contact and all wires leading to the 

spark plugs are connected or making good connections. 

Check up the timing to see that the magneto is timed 
correctly. 

Look, at the distributor and see that it is free from 
carbon dust. 

Open up the circuit breaker and see that it is not 
flooded with oil, and that no oil is on the contact points. 
The proper adjustment for these points is one sixty- 
fourth of an inch apart when they break. 

If the magneto fails to start, examine the switch and 
see that it breaks the ground connection when the switch 
is in the operating position. 

Remove the spark plugs, examine them carefully to 
see that they are not cracked, short circuited and that 
the spark plug points are not too far apart. The proper 









239 


TYPES OF TRACTORS 

_ ( 

adjustment of spark plugs points for the K-W Magneto 
is one-sixty-fourth of an inch apart. 

To test the magneto, engage impulse starter, pull off 
one secondary wire from the plug, hold it about one- 
eighth of an inch away from magnets and turn engine 
to give magneto one quick turn at the proper cylinder. 
A good spark should be thrown. 

Carbureter .—The Schebler Carbureter Model “D” is 
the standard equipment for all Caterpillar tractors. A 
sectional view of this Carbureter is shown in Figure 107 
and the names of the different parts are as follows, re¬ 
ferring to Figure 107: 

A—Leather Air Valve Disc. 

B—Float Chamber. 

C—Mixing Chamber. 

D—Spraying Nozzle. 

E—Needle Valve. 

F—Float. 

G—Reversible Union. 

H—Float Valve: 

J—Float Hinge. 

K—Throttle Disc. 

L—Float Chamber Cover. 

M—Air Valve Adjustment Screw. 

N—Cork Gasket. 

O—Air Valve Spring. 

P—Throttle Lever. 

R—Pipe Connection. 

T—Drain Cock. 

U—Float Wive Cap. 

W—Lock-Nut. 

X—Packing Nut and Needle Valve Connection. 

Y—Lock Springs. 





240 


TRACTION FARMING 



FIGURE 107. 

Carbureter—Showing Needle-Valve and Air Adjustment. 

, connections are properly made, see that the 

air valve “A” seats lightly but firmly. This is regulated 
by adjusting screw “M.” Turning adjusting screw “M” 
to the right increases, and turning to the left decreases 
the tension of the air valve spring “O.” The needle 

valve “E” should be closed lightly and then opened 
about one complete turn. 


Adjustment of Carbureter .—The adjustment of the 
carbureter depends on the atmosphere, elevation, quality 
of fuel, and load pulled. Specific directions cannot be 
given for adjusting the carbureter. The best adjust¬ 
ment is to give the motor as much air and as little fuel 
as the motor will handle to have the required power. 

















































TYPES OF TRACTORS 


241 


In making adjustment for full load, open throttle- 
wide, advance spark about one-quarter, and if the motor 
does not run smoothly but “backfires,” it indicates that 
the tension of the air valve spring “O” is too weak. If, 
after about two complete turns of adjusting screw “M” 
to the right, the irregularity is not eliminated, give the 
needle valve “E” about one-tenth to one-quarter turn 
to the left, which gives the mixture just a trifle more 
fuel. 

An over-lean mixture in the carbureter causes a “pop- 
back” or “backfire” in the carbureter. When the mixture 
contains the proper proportions of air to make an ex¬ 
plosive mixture there will be no flame present when the 
exhaust valve is opened or closed, or when the intake 
valve is opened. With an over-lean mixture, the mix¬ 
ture is not an explosive mixture but is a slow burning 
mixture. With a slow burning mixture, flame is present 
during the time that the exhaust valve is opened and at 
the time that the intake valve is opened. The flame 
traveling back down the intake manifold causes a “pop- 
back” at the carbureter. 

Never use a priming can filled with gasoline on the 
air intake of a carbureter when the motor is being started. 
A “pop-back” may occur that will cause the priming can 
to explode. If necessary prime the carbureter with gas¬ 
oline before starting. Priming the cylinders with the 
least quantity of gasoline possible is all that is usually 
required. 

An over-rich mixture in the carbureter is indicated 
by black smoke in the exhaust gases. This condition 
should be immediately remedied by decreasing the fuel 
supply * or decreasing the tension on the air valve 
spring “O.” Most tractor operators tend to operate 



TRACTION farming 

the motor with an overrich mixture. A careful operator 
will never allow this condition to exist. 

Combustion Chamber. —The function of the combus¬ 
tion chamber is to receive the fuel vapor charge and 
confine it during the period of admission, compression 
and explosion. The piston is the moving element that 
receives the force of the explosion and transmits it 
through the connecting rod and the crankshaft and fly 
wheel and in turn ; the piston receives energy from the 
fly wheel through the crankshaft during that portion of 
the stroke when power is not being produced; the latter 
energy is used in expelling the burned gases and com¬ 
pressing the new fuel vapor charge. 

The combustion chamber is that space within the 
cylinder walls between the bottom side of the cylinder 

head and the top of the piston when the piston is on 
bottom center. 


CASE GAS-OIL TRACTORS. 

Fig. 108 shows a view of the 9-18 gas tractor. It has 
a rating of 9 horse power at the drawbar and will de- 
velope 18 horse power at the belt pulley. The transmis¬ 
sion gears are all spur gears enclosed and run in oil. 
As will be seen by reference to Figure 108 all working 

parts are completely housed; protection from dust and 
dirt being thus afforded. 

Figure 109 shows the construction of the main frame 
also the transmiss-n. The front axle is of the automo¬ 
bile type. - ~ motor, a view of which is shown in 
ugure 110, is of the valve-in-head type, the cylinder 
ead being removable, thus giving access to the combus- 









FIGURE 108. 

Case 9-18 Gas Tractor. 


TYPES OF TRACTORS 


243 





















244 


TRACTION FARMING 


/ 


tion chamber for the purpose of cleaning it from deposits 
.of carbon or for regrinding the valves. \ /T alve stems, 
springs and operating mechanism being enclosed are thus 
protected from dust and dirt. Connection is made to 
the underside of this passageway inside the cylinder 
•casting which passage connects with the crankcase. An 
oil spray working up through this passage oils all these 
parts thus keeping all the valve stems and operating 
parts well lubricated. The water jacket is provided 
with two hand hole plates through which mud or other 
sediment can be removed. 

Crankcase .—The upper half of the crankcase and 
cylinders are cast integral. The bearings for the crank¬ 
shaft are contained in the lower half of the crankcase 
with bearing caps placed on top. Two handhole open¬ 
ings in the upper half are provided with covers and can 
readily be removed. Any necessary adjustments to the 
crank or bearings can be made through these handhole 
openings without dismantling any parts. Main and 
crank pin bearings are of the shell type, steel reinforced 
and babbitt lined. 

Crankshaft. The crankshaft is of the two bearings 
type, drop forged, made of steel and heat treated. The 
bearings are accurately ground to size. The extra large 
bearing surfaces provided prevent frequent takeup and 
increase the life of the bearings. The shafts are all ac¬ 
curately balanced. 

The governor, which is known as the fly ball type, 
is entirely enclosed inside the crankcase but by means 
of a small cover easy access can be gained. The wearing 
surfaces of the governor are case hardened. 

Connecting Rods .—The connecting rods are drop 
forged of I-beam section and are specially heat treated 







TYPES OF TRACTORS 


245 - 



FIGURE 109. 

Main Frame with Transmission 



























240 


TRACTION FARMING 




for extra strength. The crank pin end of the rod is |i 
provided with a steel-backed bearing and the upper end 
with a solid bronze bushing. 

Pistons. The pistons are made of gray iron, ground 
to size and provided with three packing rings. Grooves 
placed in the pistons assist in the proper lubrication and i 


prevent too much oil from working by the pistons, pre¬ 
venting carbon forming in combustion chamber. 



FIGURE 110. 


Left Side of Motor. 


Lubrication .—This is accomplished by means of a 
combination pump and splash system. A plunger pump 
is provided which supplies oil, first direct to the main 
bearings and from these it overflows to splash trays i 
located directly underneath each crank pin from where 










TYPES OF TRACTORS 


247 


it is splashed to lubricate the cylinders and other work- 
parts contained in the crankcase. An indicator lo¬ 
cated directly in front of the operator enables him to 
see whether the oil is being properly circulated at all 
times. 

Clutch. The clutch used on the 9-18 tractor is of the 
expanding, toggle type, the shoes being provided with 

non-burn asbestos clutch lining. This clutch is oper¬ 
ated by means of a hand lever from the operator’s seat. 
Only one clutch is used, both for transmission and when 
the ti actor is used for belt service. This clutch is pro¬ 
vided with a brake which engages the belt pulley and is 
operated by pulling the clutch lever in the opposite di¬ 
rection. This applies the brake to this pulley, which can 
be used for stopping driven machinery or when the 
transmission gears are in mesh, it can be used as a road 
brake for stopping the tractor on steep grades. 

Ignition .—Ignition is accomplished by means of a high 
tension magneto provided with an impulse starter which 
eliminates the necessity of batteries when starting. 

Transmission .—Reference to Figure 109 shows that 
the transmission is composed entirely of straight spur 
gears. The gear on the clutch is made of a steel forging 
and meshes into a semi-steel gear which is keyed onto 
the first shaft of the transmission. This shaft operates 
in two heavy duty Hyatt roller bearings and is provided 
with six splines on which the twp change-speed pinions 
are mounted. These pinions are drop forged and are cut 
and hardened. Two speeds are provided, one for plow¬ 
ing at 2^4 miles and the other for road speed at 3 */> 
miles per hour. 

Gears on the second transmission shaft are made of 
steel, cut and hardened. The shaft on which the bull 






248 


s 

TRACTION FARMING 



FIGURE 111. 

Case 10-20 Kerosene Tractor. 


















types of tractors 


249 


pinion is mounted is supported by two heavy duty Hyatt 
roller bearings. The bull pinion is made of a drop forg¬ 
ing, teeth cut and hardened. 

This bull pinion meshes into the bull gear, this bull 
gear being made of semi-steel with the teeth cast in 
a chill. The differential gears and pinions are made 
entirely from steel. They not only operate in an oil 
tight housing which encloses the differential gear, but 
also the bull pinion and gear. 

Cooling.— The cooling of the motor is accomplished 
by means of a truck type of radiator, provided with a 
fan which is driven direct from the motor by a pair of 
spiral gears, thus doing away with belts. The circulation 
is by means of a centrifugal pump driven by gears direct 
from the motor. 

Case 10-20 Kerosene Tractor.— This is one of the 
recent developments in the Case line of tractors and 
while the power plant or motor is similar to that of the 
9-18 tractor just described, there are some features in 
connection with the 10-20 kerosene tractor that deserve 
special mention. Figure 111 shows a view of this tractor 
and it will be noticed that it has but one front wheel. 

Frame. The frame is made from one piece of chan¬ 
nel bent into form by means of dies. This construction 
is illustrated in Figure 112.' It will be noted in the 
illustration that the rear axle is provided with a cannon 
bearing extending between the main drive wheel and 
idler wheel and also another bearing placed outside the 
drive wheel. This axle is made of 3-inch 40 to 50 carbon 
steel and operates on three Hyatt roller bearings. 

A reservoir for holding lubricant is provided in the 
center of the bearing which extends between the two 
wheels. These parts run in an oil bath. The pedestal 





250 


TRACTION FARMING 



FIGURE 112. 

Top View Showing Frame Construction. Case 10-20 Kerosene Tractor 




















TYPES OF TRACTORS 


251 


on which the yoke carrying the front wheel is mounted, 
is made of heavy steel plate formed to shape by means 
of dies. By means of the specially designed manifold 
and motor head with which the power plant of this 
tractor is equipped, it is operated on kerosene fuel and 
while the flexibility of the motor is not as great with 
this fuel as with gasoline, the results under ordinary 
conditions are eminently satisfactory. 

While the motor is designed for burning kerosene it 
■ will operate on gasoline; the same carbureter is used 
in either case. The construction of the arrangement 
for utilizing the lower grade fuels as supplied on this 
motor consists briefly of a jacketed exhaust pipe pro¬ 
vided with fins, which are heated by the engine ex¬ 
haust, and the mixture of fuel and air as supplied by 
the carbureter is passed over these fins on its way to the 
combustion chambers. The application of heat in this 
manner vaporizes the fuel before it reaches the cylinders. 

Two tanks are supplied; one of small capacity which 
contains gasoline for starting and the other one for the 
fuel which the tractor uses. A three-way valve is placed 
in the fuel line, so that either fuel is available. 

Case 12-25 Gas Tractor. —In this tractor a view of 
which is shown in Figure 113, the drawbar is located 
about 18 inches from the ground, as this height has been 
found to be the best for the hitch in plowing and hauling 
since it allows the platform of the tractor to be located 
approximately at the same height as that of the plows. 
The front axle is of the automobile type, entirely of 
steel and is hung from the frame at one point, thus 
giving a three point suspension for the truck. This de¬ 
sign it is claimed allows for moving over rough ground 
with the least strain. 





252 


TRACTION FARMING 



FIGURE 113. 












TYPES OF TRACTORS 


*?53 


Crankcase .—The crankcase, as will be seen from Figure 
114, is a single piece casting with cylinders bolted on. 
The turned parts of the cylinders are fitted into bored 
recesses on the crankcase which construction serves to 
maintain the correct alignment of the cylinders. The 
crankcase is designed so that the crankshaft can be taken 
out with the removal of very few parts and without 
touching any vital parts or adjustments. The main 
bearings are interchangeable, removable die-cast babbitt 
shells, held in place with shims so that the wear on these 
bearings can be taken up. 

Crankshaft .—This shaft is a drop forging, accurately 
ground to proper size. It has extra large bearings for 
the shaft and crank pins. The camshaft is a drop forg¬ 
ing with cams integral; all cams are case hardened glass 
hard. The cams are ground to proper profile on a 
specially designed and constructed machine, guaranteeing 
absolute accuracy of timing. 

The gear operating the camshaft, the one keyed to the 
crankshaft, is drop forged with machine-cut teeth. The 
gear attached to the camshaft is cast steel with machine- 
cut teeth. With this construction, steel gear on the 
crankshaft, should conditions be such as to result in the 
stripping of the teeth of any gear, it will always happen 
to those of the camshaft. This gear is easy to replace. 

The governor on the motor is driven by a spur gear 
which meshes into camshaft gear. The governor is en¬ 
tirely enclosed, preventing dust and dirt from disturbing 
its action. One end of the shaft, which drives the gov¬ 
ernor, is connected to the magneto with a flexible coup¬ 
ling, and the other end by a pulley which drives the 
radiator fan. 

Connecting Rods and Piston Pins .—The connecting 










FIGURE 114. 

Motor with Crank Case Cover Removed. 















types of tractors 


255 


rods are drop forged I-section. The piston ends are 
fitted with special hard bronze bushings and the crank 
pin end with genuine nickel babbitt shells bronze backed. 

he cap on the crank end is provided with metal shims 
for taking up the wear. 

Each piston pin is held in the piston by means of a 
key on one end which prevents its turning, and on the 
other end by a cap screw provided with a metal lock. 
The end of the screw fits a hole provided in the piston 
pm. This screw prevents the piston pin from moving 
lengthwise in the piston. 

Cylinder Head .—The construction of this part is such 
that it is not necessary for a water-tight joint between 
the cylinder head and the cylinder. The cylinder head 
is built so that the water jacketing extends around the 
valve stems and seats. This feature is most important 
because it prevents the warping of the valve and the sub¬ 
sequent leakage which would necessitate frequent re¬ 
grinding. The valves are contained in the head. They 
are of nickel steel with carbon steel stems. 

_ Lubrication .—The motor is lubricated by means of a 
six-feed positively driven oil pump, which supplies all 
oil for cylinders, main bearings, camshaft, crank-shaft 
bearings and crank pins. The pump is located so that 
the operator can see the amount of oil which is being 
fed to each individual bearing. This system of lubrica¬ 
tion has the advantage that fresh oil is being continually 
supplied to the motor. Furthermore the oil supplied 
to the motor finally finds its way to the lower portion 
of the crankcase from which it can be taken by means 
of a drain cock provided for the purpose. This oil can 
then be used for oiling the master gears and other parts 
of the transmission. The clutch and also the system 





256 


TRACTION FARMING 


of ignition used on the 12-25 tractor are similar to those 
in use on the Case 20-40 tractor which will be referred 
to later on. 

Speed .—This tractor is provided with two speeds, one 
which develops about 1 % miles per hour, and the other 
about 2.2 miles per hour. The hardest work naturally 
falls on it when plowing. In breaking and in stubble 
plowing the low speed is used for the former and the 
high speed for the latter and all other field operations. 



FIGURE 115. 
Case 40 Gas Tractor. 


Cooling System .—Circulation of the cooling water 
is done by the thermo-siphon system. The radiator is 
of the heavy truck type, the air being circulated through 
it by the use of a fan. This system of radiation has 
been put on the tractor in order to keep the whole tractor 
low, allowing it to be used in orchard cultivation. 





















TYPES OF TRACTORS 


257 


Case 20-40 Gas-Oie Tractor. —Figure 115 shows a 
view of this tractor and the following description will 
cover the principal features of the machine. 

Motor.— The power plant of this tractor is a horizontal 
two cylinder opposed engine, 8% inches bore by 9 inches 
stroke. The rating of the engine is as follows: Brake 
horse power 40; drawbar horse power 20. The normal 
speed is 450 R. P. M. The tractor has two forward 
road speeds. The first or plowing speed is 2 miles per 
hour and the second for hauling or other road work, 
is 2% miles per hour. Reverse speed is the same as the 
plowing speed. Both forward and reverse speeds are 
accomplished by means of one lever which is inter-* 
locking. It therefore is impossible to throw the reverse 
pinion into mesh without first putting the two drive 
pinions in neutral position. 

Crankcase .—The crankcase is of gray iron, a one piece 
casting so designed that the cover can be removed thus 
giving access to the inside of the crankcase without dis¬ 
turbing any other part. The removal of this cover has 
nothing whatever to do with the magneto or timing gears. 
Figure 116 shows the crankcase. 

Camshaft and Cams .—The camshaft and cams are of 
: a one piece drop forging. They are case hardened, rough 

machined, carbonized and ground to shape and size. A 
key seat for the cam gear is cut into the shaft with spe¬ 
cific relation to a marked gear tooth. This marked gear 
tooth on the camshaft fits into another tooth on the 
crankshaft gear. Thus the camshaft can be set in but 
one position and that is the correct one with relation to 
the timing of the valves. By this method all danger of 
interference with the timing arrangement is eliminated 
in case the motor be taken apart for repairs. 








258 


TRACTION FARMING 


Cylinders .—The cylinders and cylinder heads are cast 
separately and are so designed that there is no water 
opening leading into the joint between cylinder and head, 
the water circulation from the cylinder jacket to the head 



FIGURE 116. 

Inside Crankcase and Flywheel. 

jacket being by way of a special shaped fitting with two 
openings, one for the cylinder and the other for the 
head. The valves are made with nickel-steel heads fused 
onto carbon-steel stems ground to accurate size. 









TYPES OF TRACTORS 


259 


FIGURE 117. 

Mounting of Motor Transmission 








260 


TRACTION FARMING 


Governor .—The governor is of the throttling type and 
is positively driven. The drive for it is contained in an 
oil-tight casing. 

Transmission .—A plan of the transmission mounting 
is shown in Figure Tl7. The main driving pinions of 
the transmission are placed close to the bearings, doing 
away with any overhang. Therefore, the drive pinions 
on the crankshaft are supported not only by the engine 
bearing but are provided with an extra outboard bearing. 
By this construction the overhanging strain on engine 
main bearing, due to the belt pull, is completely elimin¬ 
ated. 

To change speed from two to three miles per hour, all 
that is necessary is the shifting of a lever. 

The differential shaft has three bearings, two placed 
close to the differential gear,'which prevents undue de¬ 
flection and adds bearing surface at the point of greatest 
strain. 

The transmission shaft is provided with a thrust collar 
which has an oil chamber provided for this collar in the 
shaft coupling. This collar eliminates all strain due to 
action of the bevel gears in the differential which tend 
to spread the channel members of the truck. 

Lubrication .—The oiling system is force-feed to dif¬ 
ferent parts of the engine by a pump positively driven. 
The six-feed oiler takes care of all important working 
parts. Those not so oiled are cared for by grease-cup 
lubrication. The pump for this lubricating system is 
driven by an eccentric on the camshaft. The oil feeds 
for the different bearings are so located as to be seen 
at all times by the operator. 

Cooling System .—The radiator used is of the very 
heaviest truck type with large lower and upper water 



types of tractors 


ilGl 


tanks, the upper tank having sufficient water capacity to 
take care of water necessary when using lower grade 
fuels. 

The radiator is of sufficient capacity, so that water 
will not boil under the worst possible operating condi- 



FIGURE 118. 

Plan View of 60 H. P. Motor. 

tions. Keeping the water down below boiling point will 
tend to prevent the formation of scale or other deposits 
in the radiator. 

The draft for the radiator is supplied by a fan, this 










262 


traction farming 


being operated by a friction wheel, making contact with 
the fly wheel of motor. The bearings for the fan drive 
are all of the Hyatt heavy duty type. Circulation is 
thermo-siphon, eliminating the use of water pump. 

Ignition. This is the high tension jump-spark system. 
The magneto is furnished with an impulse starter, elim¬ 
inating the necessity of using dry batteries. Magneto is 
covered with dust and rain-proof hood, and is easily 
accessible. 

Self Steering Device .—With this mechanism the oper¬ 
ator can move about the tractor or plow as he pleases, 
while his work continues. All he has to do is to set the 
wheel of the steering device in the furrow, and he is 
then free to leave his seat for whatever work is neces¬ 
sary. It can be quickly and easily attached. 

Clutch. The brake shoes in the clutch have very large 
beat ing sur faces lined with asbestos brake lining, ma- 
tei l3 -l w hh high friction resistance and which will not 
wear or burn out readily should clutch be allowed to 
slip. The adjustment for wear on the clutch shoes can 
be taken up by turning a long right and left hand nut 
over the eye-bolts by which the shoes are operated. Con¬ 
nected to the same lever which operates clutch is a 
powerful brake which is applied directly to the outside 
of belt pulley. This can be used to stop immediately 
the rotation of pulley when used for belt work or when 
transmission gears are in mesh. It is of sufficient power 
to hold the tractor on the steepest incline. 

t Cas ^ 30-60 Gas-Oii, Tractor. —This tractor is de¬ 
signed for heavy work. Two cylinders are used on this 
size motor also, but instead of being opposed as on the 
20-40 tractor the cylinders are both on the same side of 
the crankshaft, as will be seen by an inspection of Figure 



TYPES OF TRACTORS 


263 


118 which shows a plan view of the motor with the 
crankcase cover removed. The crank pins are set 360 
degrees apart so that a power impulse is received every 
revolution. This is not the case with two cylinder en¬ 
gines of the same type having their crank pins set at 
180 degrees apart. Figure 119 is a side view showing 
the design of the crankcase, also the oil and fuel pumps, 
besides various other equipments Figure 120 shows the 
crankshaft, also the flywheel, clutch and pinion for oper- 



FIGURE 119. 

Left Side of 60 H. P. Motor. 


ating transmission. The belt pulley also is shown. This 
tractor has a rating of 30 horse power at the drawbar^ 
and 60 brake horse power at the belt pulley. 

Motor .—The motor of the 30-60 is of the two-cylinder 
horizontal four-cycle type, 10-inch bore by 12-inch stroke 
with a normal speed of 365 revolutions per minute. The 
crankcase is placed low on the truck to prevent vibration. 
The cylinders and heads are cast separate. Main and 
cra'nk pin bearings are of the removable shell type. They 







264 


TRACTION FARMING 


are lined with high grade babbitt, which when worn 
can be quickly replaced without it being necessary to 
dismantle any part of engine. 

Transmission. —The transmission shafts are held by 
a cast housing containing all bearings, thus preventing 
possibility of shafting getting out of line. This is an 
important feature, because next to the motor nothing is 
quite as important as the transmission and the alignment 
of its shafts. 



FIGURE 120. 

Crankshaft 60 H. P. Motor. 


Ignition. An especially simple and satisfactory mag¬ 
neto is used on the 30-60, located so as to be easily ac¬ 
cessible. It is protected by a rain and dust-proof leather 
hood. The carbureter uses successfully and economically 
the various grades of naphtha, distillate, kerosene and 
gasoline. 

Tubi ication. The lubrication of the entire motor is 
taken care of by a multiple-feed oil pump. 
















TYPES OF TRACTORS 


265 


INTERNATIONAL HARVESTER KEROSENE 

TRACTORS. 

The farm tractors built by the International Harvester 
Company are designed especially for using kerosene as 
fuel, no gasoline being required in their operation except 
a small quantity used in starting the motor. These 
tractors are now being manufactured in four different 
sizes designated by the builders as follows: Mogul 10- 
20, Mogul 12-25, Titan 15-30. There is also a Titan 
10-20, which differs somewhat in structural details from 
the Mogul 10-20, although having the same power ca¬ 
pacity. The horizontal cylinder type of motor is invari¬ 
ably used in all the tractors built by the International 
Harvester Co. who claim that it is better adapted for 
the use of kerosene or distillate as fuel, than is the ver¬ 
tical type of cylinder. 



FIGURE 121. 

Mogul 10-20 Kerosene Tractor. 


The smaller size Mogul tractor, the 10-20 H. P. shown 
in Figure 121, is equipped with a single cylinder motor 
having a speed of 400 R. P. M. A side view of this 
motor is shown in Figure 122. The crankshaft, con- 









266 


TRACTION FARMING 























TYPES OF TRACTORS 


267 


necting rod and piston are shown in Figure 123. The 
cylinders are 8 y 2 inches bore by 12 inches stroke. The 
crankshaft is equipped with a pulley for the purpose of 
operating a belt for transmitting power to other machin¬ 
ery when required. The diameter of this pulley is 20 
inches and the width of face or rim is 10 y 2 inches. 

Piston . —The use of kerosene and other low grade 
fuels necessitates a high cylinder temperature for the 
greatest efficiency. These fuels also burn with greater 
heat than lighter fuels, and require specially designed 
motor parts if the best service is to be obtained. If the 
pistons were not properly designed and heat treated, 
they would not withstand this high temperature. The 
process used in making the pistons, such as shown in 
Figure 123, and which also applies to their other motors, 
is as follows: The pistons are made of special analysis 
gray iron somewhat larger than the finished product. 
The pistons are then rough turned and put through a 
special heat-treating process, where they become red 
hot—much hotter than it is ever possible in the cylinder 
of a tractor. This process takes out all the tendency 
for their shape to change due to cylinder temperatures. 
After heat treating, the piston is finely ground and pol¬ 
ished to the exact size, which reduces the strain on the 
piston rings to a minimum. The piston rings are made 
of a special analysis gray iron, which is very elastic. 
They are accurately ground to size, then sprung together 
and ground to a true round. 

Connecting Rod and Crankshaft. —The crankshafts 
are made of drop forged steel. The bearings are made 
by a special spinning process that forms a solid, uni¬ 
formly dense bearing without air holes .or dross. The 
oil ring for lubricating the crank pin bearing is a very 




268 


TRACTION FARMING 



A 

if a 

<D O 

a - 
go 

o ■* 

Xfl 

_ a> 

o 

•- u 
tco 

a 

•rH —< 

*5 

Mg 




eo 

CM 

rH 

0 

03 


§■*5 

03.2 

•rH t_j 

M cd 

4 V 

*raM 

2 be 

a 

•rH 

4J+J 
«H 03 

ed s 

.ar? 

w'O 

ri 

cd u. 

*4 O 
03 

° a 

CM .2 
6 & 





. 













269 


types of tractors 

i 

unique and efficient device that insures proper lubrication. 

The connecting rods are made long, which reduces the 
side pressure on the piston to a minimum. They are of 
drop-forged steel with I-beam cross section which com¬ 
bines maximum strength and lightness. Crank pin bear¬ 
ings are made of the highest grade anti-friction metal, 
replaceable in the connecting rods. 

Valves .—The exhaust and inlet valves are in valve 
cages, which makes it convenient tO' remove them for 
inspection and grinding. Both valves are water-cooled. 
The valve stem bearings are long, which insures proper 



FIGURE 124. 

Exhaust Valve-Cross Section. A, Steel Valve Stem; 
B, Gray Iron Valve Head. 


seating of the valves and reduces the wearing to a mini¬ 
mum. The inlet valve is of the best grade of drop 
forged steel. The exhaust valve (Figure 124) has a 
drop forged steel stem with a gray iron head. The steel 
and iron are welded together which makes a perfect joint 
of the two metals. The gray iron head withstands the 
high temperature of the exhaust gases better than any 
other construction. 

Mogul 12-25 Kerosene Tractor. —This tractor, a view 
of which is presented in Figure 125, has a capacity of 
12 horse power at the drawbar, and 25 horse power on 
the belt. The caption under Figure 125 indicates the 




we 
cffl . 
33 *> 
? bc-S 


oUPhH 


a, §2£a 2 

C^- 4 ->S S 3 
cd cd ^ O 

S W^OO* CD O 3 
c a _x3?i r aoo aj g 

“£o-^4»^s 

«S U S fttS-r 

r g c . 5 f^Q.S . 

feiO* 3 rt '".Sm cd^S 

C.feogtJ 

bJ5 ^ "Sc/' «3 flj "3 ^ ' ‘ 

' s cd c; 2 j_, a> 5 s 
- o> g cd — 


3 O O' 

t,P ^ 


w cd fe H « Q £4 
























types of tractors 


271 


various parts. The motor is of the horizontal, two-cylin¬ 
der opposed type as will be seen from Figure 126, which 
is self-explanatory. A view of the pistons, connecting 
rods and crankshaft is shown in Figure 127. Regarding 
structural details of the Mogul 12-25 tractor, they are 
similar to those of the Mogul 10-20 tractor, the main 
difference being in regard to dimensions and in the de¬ 
sign of the motors. 

Speed and Transmission .—The motor (Figure 126) 
runs at a speed of 550 R. P. M. The tractor has two 
speeds forward and one reverse. The transmission is 
of the sliding gear type with two speeds forward and 
one reverse. All gears are steel, carefully machine-cut. 
They are housed in a cast iron dust-proof case, and run 
in oil. The clutch which transmits the power from the 
motor to the gears is of the disc type. A heavy drive 
chain is used from the crankshaft to the countershaft. 
The countershaft extends the full width of the tractor 
and is equipped with the double chain drive to the drive 
wheels. A jack screw mechanism with a locking device 
is provided on both sides for adjusting the drive chains. 

In order that the power may be distributed equally to 
both rear wheels of the tractor, especially when turning 
corners, a device is placed in the case with the trans¬ 
mission, which is called the differential. It consists of a 
combination of gears which so operate that the power is 
equally distributed to both rear wheels all the time, re¬ 
gardless of whether the tractor is running straight or 
turning. These gears would be subject to considerable 
wear were it not for the fact that they run in oil and 
there is a film of oil constantly between the gear teeth 
so that wear is reduced to a minimum. A semi-sectional 






o 

o 

§ 


IP p 
<M CS 

(N 


P 

«H O 

. 

■+— 3 J- 

«M *< 

o> 


0- £ LJ G 

= SqJSCK 

o ■—■ 
n O ^ 

aw P M 

J i.2> . 

4^0 

G3 P T3 
'-' p p p •- 

PgSt o 

» +-I <P -M 

5° > p 

8p<Sf 

•»—' O fl) C3 

>H ^ rT _ 'VH 

l*3<IH«OS 


S*f3 

&c.3® 

.JS® 

O® 
cj *"• ® 

£do § 

§ ~n8 

*-< rv 0J> 

O c "* -J r 

G 5K 

Ph*"^ •“ 

'O q a 

p_ P c p 
02 P a P n4 

OSk3t( 

okHCnfa 


p 























TYPES OF TRACTORS 


273 





FIGURE 127. 

Mogul Tractor Parts: A. Crankshaft Bearing; B, Oil Rings which 
Force the Oil into Crank Pin Bearings ; C, Shims for Adjusting 
Connecting Rod Bearing; D, Connecting Rod ; E, Piston Pin 
Oil Hole and Groove ; F. Piston Rings; G, Piston Pin ; 

H, Piston Pin Bushing. 






traction farming 


view of the transmission and differential gears is shown 
in Figure 128. 

The large countershaft gear and also the pinion on the 
end of the crankshaft of the engine are entirely enclosed 
m a sheet metal case, which protects them from any ac¬ 
cumulation of dust between the gear teeth thus eliminat¬ 
ing considerable wear. All other gears throughout the 
tractor are also covered so that they are not subjected to 
the wear resulting from dust and sand accumulating on 


In changing from one forward speed to the other, or 
to reverse the tractor, only one lever is used. This lever 
shifts the gears in the transmission case. Except when 
acking the tractor, the reverse gear is out of mesh, 
liiis reduces the wear and saves power. The bearings 
of the transmission are all of high grade anti-friction 
metal, phosphor bronze being used in places where it 

gives the best wearing surface and in other places high 
grade babbitt. 6 

. , The ^. ear ax]e llas two roIIer bearings one on either 
side. These bearings support the weight of the tractor 
and as they are carefully protected from the dust, they 
ie< uce the friction to a minimum. The construction of 
the axle roller bearing is shown in Figure 129 These 
bearings are lubricated with grease. 

Fuel Mixer.—A general idea of the construction and 
action of the fuel mixer or carbureter used in these 
ractors can be obtained from a study of Figure 130. 

This mixer will use kerosene or distillate down to 39 
degrees Baume, and any of the higher grade fuels, such 
aptha, and gasoline. Owing to the nature of kero¬ 
sene it is necessary that the mixer be located at a point 
higher than the cylinders of the motor in order that 




TYPES OF TRACTORS 


.275' 


gravity may assist in carrying the vaporized or atomized 
fuel into> the cylinder. The action of the mixer is as 
follows: On the left side, A, is a cup large enough to 
hold a small quantity of gasoline for starting. When 
the fuel switch lever, B, is vertical, gasoline will be fed 
to the motor from this cup. C is the mixer valve, and in 
starting, this should be opened to the point indicated by 



HIGH SPEElT} GEAR SHIFTER] TOW SPEED’ 
PINION FORK PINION 


DIFFERENTIAL^ 

PINION 


GEAR SHIFTING^ 
BELL CRANK/ 


BABBITT BUSHING^ 


DIFFERENTIAL) 

GEAR 


orivingX 

SPROCKET/ 


Gabbitt 

I BUSHING 


PHOSPHOR BRONZE] 
BUSHING/ 


GEAR SHIfTTTCJ 
ROD 


DIFFERENTIAL 

GEAR 


DRIVING \ 
SPROCKET* 


PHOSPHOR BRONZF 
BUSHING 


(COUNTERSHAFT HIGH SPEED 

GEAR GEAR 


REVERSE OPERATING 
ROD 


GEAR 


FIGURE 128. 


Transmission and Differential Gears. 


a mark on the valve wheel. As soon as the motor is 
running well on gasoline, and it becomes hot enough to 
operate satisfactorily on kerosene, by merely turning the 
switch lever to the position as shown at B kerosene will 
be fed to the motor through cup D, where the fuel is 
pumped from the supply tank. Cold air enters the mixer 
at B, the supply being controlled by the damper F. B 
opens directly into the air, but when the damper F is 







276 


TRACTION FARMING 


closed, the pipe extending below this damper makes di¬ 
rect connection with a jacket about the exhaust pipe of 
the motor. This jacket heats the air which passes 
through it, and when starting in extremely cold weather 
this warm air assists in vaporizing the fuel. Before the 
air reaches the mixer it must pass through the air-strainer 
G (Figure 130). This prevents all sand and dust from 
getting into the cylinders. Water is mixed with the fuel, 
as it assists in the successful combustion of kerosene. It 
is not required when the tractor is first started, or when 



FIGURE 129. 

Rear Axle Roller Bearing. 

operating without a load. The water valve H, is auto¬ 
matic. After once turning on the water, which should not 
be done until after the tractor is started and the cylinders 
become warm, valve H automatically opens and supplies 
water just in proportion to the amount of fuel being con¬ 
sumed. It is claimed that the use of water adds to the 
fuel economy. The mixer shown in Figure 130 is used 
principally on the Titan tractors. Figure 130a shows a 
ci oss section of the mixer with which the Mogul tractors 
are equipped. Both mixers work on the same general 
principles; the force of gravity being utilized to facilitate 


















TYPES OE TRACTORS 


277 



FIGURE 130. 


the passage of the explosive mixture into the cylinder. 
Figure 130a is self-explanatory. 

Fuel Supply .—Each tractor is equipped with two fuel 
tanks—a small one for gasoline, and a larger one for 


Kerosene Mixer. A, Gasoline Cup ; B, Fuel Switch 
Valve; C, Needle Valve; D, Kerosene Cup; 

B, Cold Air Intake; F, Air Damper; 

G, Air Strainer ; H. Water Valve ; 

J, Location of Governing 
Throttle. 

kerosene. Two fuel pumps are also provided for pump¬ 
ing the fuel to the supply cups, one for gasoline and one 
for kerosene. 

Ignition .—The ignition is jump-spark; the current be¬ 
ing supplied by a gear-driven magneto. This magneto 
has an automatic starting device which enables it to fur¬ 
nish as good a spark for starting as when running. 


















'278 


TRACTION FARMING 





M hen the engine starts, this device is automatically 
thrown out of action. 

Speed Regulation .—A flyball throttling type governor 
is used which operates a butterfly valve on each branch 
of the intake manifold. 



Cl wlttfa°clet; U^e^Va^ Air Valve; B. Hot 

D Used Only for Starting AfterMoto? if stiSIrt t? P T ' 

T ° w^ATT bj : °J>eW Valve B and Closing^V^lve 1 
. \\ lien Motor is Warmed up. Use a Little Waiter bv ’ 

Opening Valve, F. y 

Automatic Lubrication .—The motor is lubricated by 
an automatic force-feed oiler with twelve feeds. The 
transmission is lubricated by another automatic force- 
















TYPES OF TRACTORS 


279 


feed oiler with five feeds. These automatic force-feed 
oilers are the newest design with all working parts en¬ 
closed and running in oil. These lubricators are valve¬ 
less and there are no springs or ball valves to give trouble. 
They will force oil at any temperature and against a 
pressure of 2,000 pounds. The cooling system includes 



FIGURE 131 

Hand Starter Used on Mogul 12-25. A, Friction Wheel; B, 
Release Lever ; C, Raise this Lever to Engage Fric¬ 
tion Wheel with Flywheel; D, Crank. 


a belt driven rotary pump for maintaining circulation of 
the water through the cylinder jackets and the vertical 
tube radiator. A belt driven fan is also provided for the 
purpose of aiding radiation. 

Starting Device .—A hand starter (See Figure 131) 
is furnished with the Mogul 12-25. It consists of a 
friction wheel A and mechanism by which the friction 
wheel is held against the flywheel while starting. When 
it is desired to start the motor, a large lever C is pulled 





2S0 


TRACTION FARMING 


up. This engages the friction wheel with the motor fly¬ 
wheel. As soon as the motor starts the small lever B 
at the top is pulled and the friction wheel is automatically 
disengaged from the flywheel by a spring. 



FIGURE 132. 


Titan 10-20 Kerosene Tractor. 

The Titan Tractors are built in two sizes as follows: 
Titan 10-20 H. P. and Titan 15-30 H. P. Figure 132 
shows a view of the Titan 10-20 which has a draw bar 
pull of 10 H. P., and will develop 20 H. P. on the belt. 
This tractor is equipped with a twin cylinder motor, 
meaning that two cylinders are placed side by side instead 
of being opposed as in the case of the Mogul tractors. 

Figure 133 will give a clear idea of the design of this 
type of motor. The impulses from these cylinders al¬ 
ternate so that there is a power stroke produced for each 
revolution of the crankshaft. Figure 134 shows the 
crankshaft with counterweights and other parts clearly 
outlined and explained in the caption. Concerning the 
details of cylinder, piston and valve construction of the 
Titan motors they are similar to those of the Mogul type 
already described. 






TYPES OF TRACTORS 


281 


The same systems of ignition and speed regulations are 
used in both types of tractor, but it should be noted that 
with motors of the horizontal opposed cylinder type, such 
as the Mogul, each cylinder is equipped with its own fuel 
mixer, while but one fuel mixer is required for the Titan 
motor. Ignition is the same as on the Mogul motors, no 
batteries being required. 

Four Cylinder Motor.— The power plant of the 15-30 
Titan tractor consists of an engine of the four-cylinder 



FIGURE 133. 

Titan 10-20 Twin Cylinder. Horizontal. Valve-in-Head Motor. A, High' 
Tension Magneto ; B, Mechanical Lubricator ; C, Air Strainer ; 

D, Fuel Mixer ; E, Fuel Pump ; F, Warm Air Jacket; 

G, Compression Release-Valves. 

type, set horizontal across the machine, so that power 
is delivered direct through spur gears without bevel 
gear. Four-cylinder design and low speed eliminate vi¬ 
bration. The motor is enclosed in dust-tight crankcase 
with removable cover. One fuel mixer with two fuel 
needle valves and one water needle valve is used on this 
motor. The speed of the motor is 575 R. P. M. giving 
a road speed of 2.4 miles per hour. 

Cylinders .—The cylinders are cast in pairs and are 






2S2 


TRACTION FARMING 










TYPES OF TRACTORS 


2S3 


bolted to a substantial one-piece dust-tight crankcase with 
a removable cover. Both the intake and exhaust mani¬ 
folds lead from the cylinders so that the cylinder heads 
are left free. The cylinder heads are also cast in pairs, 
each covering two. cylinders, and can be removed without 
disturbing other parts. The removal of the cylinder 
heads gives the operator a clear view of the valve heads 
and pistons. The only parts attached to the cylinder 
heads are the spark plugs. This makes it a simple mat¬ 
ter to remove them as they are always in plain sight and 
reach. 



/ ' . <wcso Hu **»«*«» 

' <• '/ ■ , .'if* Safe 

i *■' v - -SHOTfiWBKWUlFfisiM 

\ jtQgglfk 




li-sitpSH irwy- 


• ■ 


'^aeiawsi! 

V:'* . Y 


V- tWs 

WSY - > 


raosr wmeus' 
A «0 Staowi, 


cr.vbnrs& 


F AH& A. 

wmms ,XH!^ 

cm-aceM 

XlX.Si.C7>W tlftg >CH.CCVii.iO 


COOliWj - 


'' a 

iHy.Ht H-ai! SAiAKtf*, : 
w.T« os ftfAtf 


FIGURE 135. 

Rumely Oil Traction Engine. 

RUMELY FARM TRACTORS. 

These farm tractors manufactured by the Advance- 
Rumely Thresher Company of Laporte, Indiana, may be 
classified as follows: 

(a) Oil pull tractors, 15-30 and 30-60. 

(b) Advance tractors, 8-16 and 12-24. 










2S4 


TRACTION FARMING 



Right Hand View—15-30 Motor Plant, 













TYPES OF TRACTORS 


285 


The fuel used in these tractors is kerosene, gasoline 
being used only at time of starting the motor when a 
small quantity is required. 

Oil Pull Motor .—The design and construction of the 
motors used on the two sizes of the oil pull tractors, 
15-30 and 30-60, is practically identical except as to the 
number of cylinders, that of the 15-30 tractor having 
but one cylinder, while the 30-60 motor has two cylinders, 
but in each case the dimensions are the same, the bore 
being ten inches and the stroke twelve inches. 

Figure 135 shows the tractor as it appears on the road. 
Figure 136 is a right hand view of the 15-30 single cylin¬ 
der motor showing the principal working parts. In 
Figure 137 is presented a view of the two cylinder motor 
used on the 30-60 tractor. A comparison of these illus¬ 
trations will show the similarity in design of the two 
motors, and the following description will apply in both 
cases. 

Crankcase. —This is cast in one piece of strong semi¬ 
steel and heavily reinforced. All faces are correctly ma¬ 
chined aiid the cylinder apertures are bored to exact 
size by special machines. The other holes are bored, 
reamed and tapped at one setting, thus insuring a per¬ 
fect fit for the governor, magneto mechanism and the inlet 
and exhaust push rods. The construction of the crank¬ 
case is illustrated in Figure 138. It is secured to the 
frame with one-inch machined bolts of high grade steel 
fitted with nuts and cotter pins. Two side plates are 
fitted against the machined side surfaces after having 
been bored and counter-bored for a heavy felt ring se¬ 
curely held in place by a steel packing ring to prevent loss 
of oil. The crankcase top is machined and fitted with a 
steel cover securely held in place by half-inch studs, 




2S6 


TRACTION FARMING 



FIGURE 137. Right Hand View—30-60 Motor Plant 








TYPES OF TRACTORS 


287 



thus making the crankcase oil tight and dust proof. A 
secondary cover or hand-hole plate is fitted to the main 
cover which can be easily opened for inspection and ad¬ 
justment of the parts inside. The cover is also fitted 
with a breather valve to regulate air pressure. The con¬ 
struction of the crankcase gives easy access to the crank- 


F1GURE 138. 

Crankcase Construction. 

• shaft and camshaft bearings or rocker arms. Any of 
these parts can be removed without unnecessary tearing 
down. A view of the two-cylinder motor with the crank¬ 
case removed is shown in Figure 139. 

Crankshaft. —The crankshaft is forged from a steel 
billet having a tensile strength of 80,000 lbs. to the inch. 
When machined and finished it is 4 7/16 inches in diam- 



288 


TRACTION FARMING 


eter at the bearings and 4% inches diameter at the crank 
pins. The cranks are balanced with accurately fitted and 
securely fastened counter-weights, both shaft and weights 
being planed to an exact fit. The crankshaft is carried 
on two heavy end bearings each nine inches in length, and 
as will be seen from Figure 140, the crankshaft of the 
two-cylinder motor is provided with a center bearing 



FIGURE 139. 

Motor Plant with Crankcase Removed. 


which is 4% inches in length, thus insuring absolute 
rigidity. The bearings are cast in halves from genuine 
babbitt metal accurately scraped and fitted. Liners are 
used in the boxes so that exact adjustments can be made. 
Each bearing is positively lubricated through an oil pipe 
direct from the automatic oil pump. 

Camshaft .—The camshaft is made of high grade steel 
1 13/16 inches in diameter held to a standard of one- 









TYPES OF TRACTORS 


289 


thousandth part of an inch. There are two large end 
bearings each 5 y 2 inches long, and in addition the two 
cylinder motor has a 3t/ 2 inch center bearing. The cams 
are high grade drop forgings, heat treated, and ground 
to precision. These are pressed on the shaft by hy¬ 
draulic pressure. To further prevent any possible slip- 
page, a headless case-hardened set screw is used in each 
cam. The governor and magneto gears are machine-cut 



FIGURE 140. 
Crankshaft. 


from drop-forged steel blanks, bored to size, then pressed 
on the camshaft and securely keyed. The inlet and ex¬ 
haust rocker arms are drop-forged steel and the cam 
rollers and pins are of heat-treated, hardened steel ac¬ 
curately ground. The rocker arms are held in place by 
fulcrum pins of hard steel. The camshaft reduction gear 
is of semi-steel with machine cut teeth 2y 2 inch face. 
This gear is driven from the crankshaft reduction pin- 


290 


TRACTION FARMING 


ion which is machine-cut from a drop-forged steel blank. 
A phantom view of the complete motor plant is shown 
in Figure 141. 



Cylinders .—The composition of the cylinders is a spe¬ 
cial semi-steel mixture. After being machined and 
ground singly the cylinders, shown in Figure 142 are 
solidly bolted to the crankcase at an angle of about 10 








types of tractors 


291 


degrees from the horizontal to provide for drainage. 
The heads are cast separate and can be easily removed 
when necessaiy as they are bolted on to the cylinders 
with TL inch steel studs. Ample cooling surface and 
thorough circulation is provided by jackets of large ca¬ 
pacity. The combustion chamber is cylindrical in shape, 
thus bringing the full impulse of each explosion directly 
against the piston, the long stroke of which uses up all 
available energy in the gases before they are expelled. 



FIGURE 142. 

♦ 

Cylinders and Cylinder Head. 

Pistons .—Figure 143 shows the form of piston and 
connecting rod used in these motors. The pistons are 
made from special gray iron castings, machined, ground 
to size and fitted v/ith four compression rings and one 
oil ring of the self-expanding type. The piston pin is 
of heat-treated, hardened steel, keyed in position and 
further secured with a set screw to prevent slippage. 
The pin is drilled through the center to provide lubrica¬ 
tion for the pin bearings. The removal of the piston is 
easily accomplished by the following method: First re¬ 
move the cylinder head and the secondary crankcase 





292 


TRACTION FARMING 


* 


i 


cover. Next disconnect the connecting rod at the crank 
pin. The piston can then be pulled out through the rear 
end of the cylinder. 

Connecting Rods .—These are of steel I-shaped drop 
forgings having ample bearings at each end. The crank 



FIGURE 143. 

Piston and Connecting Rod. 


pin bearings are made in halves to permit adjustment. 
The wrist pin bearing is a bronze bushing, and it is lubri¬ 
cated through a hole drilled in the pin. 

Valves .—The valve cages are amply cooled to prevent 
overheating and can be easily removed. The valves are 
turned from hard nickel steel in one piece. The motor 
is provided with compression relief to facilitate starting. 

Governor .—The governor is gear actuated and is very 
sensitive. It operates on the throttling principle, regulat¬ 
ing at less than two per cent speed variation. Adjust¬ 
ments for speed can be made while the engine is in opera¬ 
tion. The practicable speed range is from 300 to 400 
R. P. M. Figure 144 shows a view of the governor. 
It is enclosed in a dust and water proof case, and runs in 
a bath of oil that requires to be renewed but once in three 
or four months. 







types of tractors 


293 


Lubrication .—A combination of force feed and splash 
lubrication is employed. An oil pump forces oil to all 
important bearings in the crank case and to the cylinders. 

The crankcase in addition contains two gallons of lubri¬ 
cating oil to take care of the gears and cams, and the 
surplus goes to all bearings. 

Ignition .—A make-and-break system of ignition is used 
which operates on low tension current and for that rea¬ 
son is not liable to short circuit. Furthermore, the use 
of movable electrodes tends to keep the ignition points 



FIGURE 144. 
Governor. 


clean and free from carbon which forms more freely 
when using low-grade fuels such as kerosene and heavier 
oils. 

A low-tension magneto (Figure 145) is used, driven 
direct from the camshaft which insures perfect timing. 
It is covered to exclude dirt and water. 

The spark plug, illustrated in Figure 146, can be easily 
removed by unscrewing two nuts. The ignition point is 
made of a special composition and gives a quick hot 
spark. The fixed electrode is insulated with mica which 
is not liable to crack. 






FIGURE 145. 

Magneto. 

sene tractors. Figures 147 and 148 show phantom views 
of this carbureter which is of the Secor-Higgins type. 


294 


TRACTION FARMING 


Carbureter .—The carbureter used on the Rumely oil 
pull tractor differs in many respects from the mixers or 
vaporizers heretofore described in connection with kero- 


Reference to Figure 147 will show that it is divided into 
upper and lower sections, the upper section being again 
divided into three compartments. The compartment 


FIGURE 146. 
Spark Plug. 






TYPES OF TRACTORS 


295 



fai thest to the i ight is for gasoline, the middle one is for 
water, and the one larthest to the left is for kerosene. 
All these compartments open into the lower section which 
is the mixing chamber. In the bottom of this are three 
rectangular openings. The two openings on the right 
hand side admit air to the mixing chamber. The one on 
the left is the opening to the manifold through which 
the mixture of kerosene, water and air passes directly 
into the cylinder. A plate shown in the illustration slides 


FIGURE 147. 

back and forth over these openings. The movement of 
this plate is controlled by the governor. The openings in 
this plate are arranged so that when it is pulled to the 
left the outlet to the cylinder is made smaller, while the 
air inlet remains about the same size through the un- 





296 


TRACTION FARMING 


covering of a second opening as the first becomes partly- 
closed. 

Needle valves in the kerosene and water chambers con¬ 
trol the amount of fuel and water to be fed. These need 
be set only once at full load and the governor then takes 
care of the adjustment for all other loads. 

For example, at light loads the sliding plate is in the 
position shown in Fig. 147. Then the outlet to the cyl¬ 
inder is small, and the air opening at the right is com¬ 
paratively large; so that the suction in the mixing cham¬ 
ber is not very great. With an increase in the load, the 
governor moves the plate over to the right, till at full 
load it is as shown in Fig. 148. 





In this position the entrance to the cylinder is made 
larger, while the air inlet area remains about the same. 
Thus, the suction is increased, thereby inhaling an in- 









types of tractors 


297 



creased quantity of fuel into the cylinder, but the pro¬ 
portion of air increases at a greater ratio than the fuel. 
This makes a leaner mixture at heavy loads and a richer 
one at light loads, so that the fuel mixture varies auto¬ 
matically as compression changes and proper conditions 
are provided for complete combustion at all loads. 


FIGURE 149. 

Frame and Gearing. 

Gasoline is used only for starting, and then only dur¬ 
ing the time required for warming up the cylinders. The 
gasoline required for starting is injected into the gasoline 
compartment by means of a force pump. From this com¬ 
partment' the suction of the engine starts a siphon into 
operation which draws the gasoline out, although if the 
engine does not start at once the siphon automatically 
stops working, so that the gasoline is not all drawn out 



208 


TRACTION FARMING 

and wasted. The device is very simple, there being no 
springs, floats or check valves used. When the load is 
light, the suction is not strong enough to draw the water 
into the mixture, consequently the fuel will be in the 
proper condition for such loads. At about half-load and 
above, the suction draws in water in increasing propor¬ 
tion to the kerosene and air. Water fed in correct pro- 



FIGURE 150. 

Standard Drive Wheel Showing Master Gear 
Attached. 


portion causes the mixture to burn more slowly, keeps 
it cool and scours the cylinder, cleaning out the carbon 
particles which would otherwise cause pre-ignition and 
knocking. 

Gearing and 1 ransmission .—The crankshaft pinion 
and idler have cut teeth. The other gears used in the 
transmission are cast of either steel, or semi-steel as best 










TYPES OF TRACTORS 


299 


suited for the purpose. Figure 149 shows the frame and 
gearing including the large master gear wheels. In Fig¬ 
ure 150 is shown the method of attaching the master 
gear to the drive wheel. It should be noted that the 
master gears on which the heaviest strains fall are made 
with split hubs which permits the gear to “give” under 
sudden jerks to which a tractor is sometimes subjected, 
without breaking. As will be seen from Figure 150;, the 
master gears are not only bolted to the hub of the driver 
but are also secured to the rims of the drive wheels by 
five rigid brackets, thus keeping the shaft in alignment. 

Fuel supply .—The fuel oil and water tanks are located 
under the operator’s platform and secured to the frame. 
These tanks are of sufficient capacity to carry a full day’s 
fuel supply. 

Cooling system .—Oil is used instead of water for cool¬ 
ing purposes. The advantages claimed for this method 
are, that the oil does not evaporate, does not deposit scale 
in the cylinder jackets and will not freeze and cause dam¬ 
age in cold weather. A centrifugal pump driven by a 
chain from the crankshaft provides thorough circulation 
of the cooling oil. 

ADVANCE-RUMELY TRACTORS. 

Figure 151 shows the 8-16 tractor, designed for use 
on small and medium size farms. Kerosene is used for 
fuel, although as usual in all kerosene engines, a small 
quantity of gasoline is used for starting, and until the 
engine is warmed up, when the fuel is changed to kero¬ 
sene by means of a small lever on the steering post. 

Motor .—The motor used on this tractor is of the four^ 
cylinder, L-head type specially constructed for tractor 




300 


TRACTION FARMING 

























FIGURE 152. Semi-Sectional View of Motor. 


TYPES OF TRACTORS 


301 


X' 



A 
















302 


TRACTION FARMING 


work. Figure 152 shows a semi-sectional view of this 
type of motor which is governor-controlled, although a 
hand throttle enables the operator to run the machine 
at low speed when desired. 


Cylinders. —These are 4 inches bore and 5% inches 
stroke, made of semi-steel cast integral with the crank¬ 
case. A clear view of the cylinders is shown in Figure 



FIGURE 153. 


* 



153, where it will be seen that the cylinder heads are 
made in a single casting which can be easily removed, 
thus allowing free access to the cylinders and combustion 
chamber, and also to the valves for cleaning. Removable 

side plates allow access to valve stems and connecting- 
rods. 

Piston.' Figure 154 shows the construction of the 
piston, piston pin and connecting rod. Each piston car- 





























TYPES OF TRACTORS 


303 


ries five separate rings. The piston pin is of hardened 
steel and hollow, held securely to the end of the con¬ 
necting rod by a clamp and screw. This construction: 
prevents the pin from turning or sliding sideways. The 
piston pins are lubricated both from the side and the top. 

Crankshaft .—The crankshaft is made from a heat- 
treated drop forging, the bearings as shown in Figure 
155 being of ample length and provided with special die 
cast boxes readily adjustable and easy to replace. The 
camshaft on this motor is a special forging, the cams 
being forged as a part of the shaft. 

The cams operate on the adjustable push rods which 
lift the valves. The push rods are also hardened and 
ground. The action of the cams on the push rod is such 
that the push rod rotates as it opens and closes the valves, 
insuring longer life and preventing irregular wear of the 
guides. 



FIGURE 154. 

Piston and Connecting Rod. 


Valves .—The valves are made of fine grade cast iron 
welded by special process to steel stems. The valve 
lifters or push rods have no pins or rollers to wear or 
come loose. Speed regulation is accomplished by a gov¬ 
ernor of the ball-and-spring type which is mounted in 
the camshaft gear, this gear thus acting in the dual ca¬ 
pacity of serving as governor frame and camshaft gear. 


304 


TRACTION FARMING 


The governor operates the butterfly valve in the intake 
passage and controls the amount of fuel and air mixture 
passing into the cylinder. The governor can be readily 
adjusted for higher or lower speed while the motor is 
running. 


Carbureter .—The Advance tractors are equipped with 
a double carbureter having an automatic water feed and 
Bennett air cleaner. One side of the carbureter is ad¬ 
justed for gasoline, a small quantity of which is used in 
starting. The other side is adjusted for kerosene used 
for continuous running. No adjustments are necessary 
in changing from gasoline to kerosene. The change is 
effected by merely moving a small lever at the operator’s 
hand. Likewise no adjustment of the water feed is nec¬ 
essary, as the motor when using kerosene, automatically 
draws in water in proportion to the load it is carrying. 

Ignition .—The high tension jump-spark ignition system 
is used, current being supplied by a high grade magneto 




FIGURE 155. 
Crankshaft. 





fitted with a double impulse starter, by means of which 
the mot 01 can be instantly started, thus making the use 
of batteries unnecessary. 

Cooling system .—The motor is water-cooled, the cool¬ 
ing being accomplished by means of a honey-comb radi- 













types of tractors 


303 


ator, spring mounted, a belt driven fan and positive driven 
centrifugal circulating pump. The fan revolves within 
a close-fitting hood, insuring all air being drawn through 
the radiator. This fan is driven by a two-inch belt which 
is kept tight by means of a belt tightener. 

Transmission. —The transmission, as will be seen from 
Figure 156 is a compact unit in itself and is not affected 
by any movement of the various members of the frame 
in operating over rough ground. 

A simple and powerful expanding shoe clutch, oper¬ 
ated with a foot pedal connects the engine to the trans¬ 
mission gears. Sliding case hardened jaw clutches oper¬ 
ated with a shifting lever provide forward and reverse 
motion. 

The entire transmission is contained in a semi-steel 
casting, whereby the alignment of the three shafts and 
the adjustment of the gears is permanently maintained. 
This housing is, of course, absolutely oil tight and dust 
proof, and all gears run in oil baths. 

Hyatt roller bearings are used throughout the trans¬ 
mission. Roller bearings not only give increased effi¬ 
ciency, but require little attention. The driving gears 
consist of a cast steel bull pinion and a semi-steel master 
gear kept free from dirt by the exhaust which is piped 
to discharge where these gears mesh. Lubrication of the 
cylinders and main bearings of the crankshaft is by force- 
feed. The camshaft, timing gears and connecting rod 
ends are lubricated by the splash system, the oil in the 
crankcase for splash lubrication being constantly renewed 
under the action of the mechanical force-feed lubricator 
which is mounted on the dash and as it is of the sight- 
feed type its action can be seen by the operator. 

Mention having already been made of the Advance 



306 


TRACTION FARMING 


12-24 tractor it may be well to explain that this tractor 
is built along the same general lines as the 8-16 and 
the details of construction and operation are substan- 



FIGURE 156. 

Transmission Gears. 

tially the same. Successfully burning kerosene is a fea¬ 
ture of the 12-24 as on the 8-1G, and all details of 
the motor are the same excepting on a slightly larger 
scale. The frame of the 12-24 is given additional 


























TYPES OF TRACTORS 


307 



strength by reason of the heavier and more powerful en¬ 
gine and transmission gearing, and to take up the heavier 
strain of the three-plow gang. 

Reverse Drive .—As shown in Figure 151, the direction 
of travel for these tractors when pulling plows brings 
the drive wheel ahead of the operator. For other work 
than plowing the tractor runs in the opposite direction, 


FIGURE 157. 

Steering Mechanism and Reversing Feature. 

and the method of reversing the steering mechanism is 
illustrated in Figure 157. The driver’s seat is reversed 
by simply removing a pin and swinging the seat around. 





















30S 


TRACTION FARMING 


This at the same time automatically reverses the steer¬ 
ing mechanism. In other words the operation of the 
clutch, gear shifting levers, and steering wheel are exact¬ 
ly the same with reference to the driver’s seat, regardless 
of whether he is going forward or backward. See 
Figure 157. 

W hen thus used for purposes other than plowing, the 
plows and plow frame are, of course, not needed and it 
is but a moment’s work to detach them. There is noth¬ 
ing to lift, merely pull out a couple of pins and the plows 
and plow frame are free of the tractor. 





PART II. 




_ 












■ 








— 














































PART II. 


CHAPTER I. 

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS IN THE FARM HOME. 

By S. E. Brown. 

One of the causes of dissatisfaction with farm life is 
the lack of conveniences in the home. It must be ad¬ 
mitted that when compared with the conveniences found 
in the average city dwelling, the farm home even of the 
well-to-do farmer shows badly. Labor saving devices 
have been purchased for farm use to a very great extent. 
The money invested for conveniences for the home, how¬ 
ever, is comparatively small. Fortunately, this state of 
affairs is changing, and while a few years ago one would 
possibly have found a sewing machine, washing machine, 
bread mixer and perhaps a few other articles whose use 
lightened the labors of the housewife, it is now not un¬ 
common to find in addition to the above mentioned arti¬ 
cles, water systems, heating systems, lighting plants, re¬ 
frigerators, vacuum cleaners, fireless cookers, etc. 

There can scarcely be any dissention to the statement 
that of all the above mentioned items, the water system 


311 



312 


TRACTION FARMING 


stands first in its importance to family comfort and wel¬ 
fare. The farmhouse with a pressure water system has 
all the advantages and sanitary conveniences of the city 
home. A modern bathroom, kitchen, sink, hot water 
tank, running water in the laundry, dairy and barn are 
comforts and conveniences of far greater value to the 
farmer than the small cost they represent. 

One great virtue of a pressure water system is that it 
makes a modern bathroom possible. From a hygienic 
standpoint the bathroom is an absolute necessity. The 
conditions under which the average family on.the farm 
lived until recently, would not be tolerated by a city 
family. Of course, one can have baths regardless of 
whether there is a water pressure system or not. But the 
plain fact is that bathing is neglected when it means the 
carrying of water from well or cistern, heating it on the 
stove, and securing, after all this effort, a rather unsatis¬ 
factory bath. When a man comes in from the field after 
a hard day’s toil, his body reeking with perspiration, 
dusty, tired, exhausted, nothing is more refreshing and 

nducive to a ^,ood night’s rest than a pleasant, agree¬ 
able bath. It will be taken, too, when the only effort 
required is to turn on the water. 

When the element of convenience is considered it is 
surprising that the farmer has so long permitted himself— 
and especially the women of his household—to worry 
along with the endless toil of water pumping and carry¬ 
ing. It is the wife and daughters that usually suffer 
most. Not only must water be carried for ordinary do¬ 
mestic purposes, but on wash days, when the work should 
•be lightened, it is increased by the labor necessary to 
carry tubful after tubful from cistern or well, frequently 
in inclement weather when the risks from exposure are 




WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 


313 


great. Contrast this with running water, both hot and 
cold, always on tap. The sum that would be invested 
in a new implement to lessen the work on the farm should 
surely not be considered exorbitant to expend for equip¬ 
ment that will put an end to all this needless drudgery. 

Water systems as now offered for private installation 
give ample opportunity for one to secure apparatus that 
is dependable and that can be secured for a reasonable 
outlay. One of the most popular types marketed is known 
as the Fresh Water System, so called because with it 
water is delivered “fresh” from the well to the faucet. 
This system will always have preference where con¬ 
venience and flexibility are given first consideration. It 
is, in fact, the most modern method of water delivery un¬ 
der pressure and gives service fully equal to, and in most 
cases surpassing, that available in the city. For instance, 
it is not at all infrequent to find these systems supplying 
water from well or spring for drinking purposes; from a 
cistern for domestic use; and from one or more additional 
wells for stock and general purposes, and all operated 
by only one power plant. This Fresh Water System is 
available when the water does not have to be elevated 
more than 100 feet and where the water is clean, free 
from sand, grit and other impurities. 

These plants consist of an air compressor which may 
be driven by a small gasoline engine, or electric motor, 
an air-tight steel tank for air storage and an auto-pneu¬ 
matic pump for each source of water supply. These 
pumps consist of two small metallic chambers which are 
submerged in the water. When a faucet is opened they 
automatically fill and discharge due to the compressed 
air pressure from the storage tank, thus giving a contin¬ 
uous flow of water. In addition to the strong feature of 


314 


TRACTION FARMING 



Fresh Water System Operated by Gasoline Engine or Electric 

Motor, 
















































WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 


315* 


water being delivered fresh and cool an advantage of this 
system is that since compressed air can be piped most 
any distance to the auto-pneumatic pump in the well 
without any appreciable loss, the power plant, and air 
storage tank can be located wherever convenient, as in 
barn, garage or dry basement. This makes it an easy 
matter, where an engine is used, to arrange to have it 
drive other machinery when not in use for pumping water. 

For the benefit of our readers who may be interested 
to know something of the engineering problem in con¬ 
nection with water systems we give below a table show¬ 
ing the amount of water, m gallons, that can be drawn 
from faucets by auto-pneumatic pumps at various work¬ 
ing pressure by the expansion of compressed air from a 
1,000-gallon air tank. To make this table of greater 
value an estimate of the amount of water used for various 
purposes on the farm is also given. 

PUMPING CAPACITY OF AIR TANKS. 

Working 

Pressure Total Pressure in Tank at Start, 

on Pump 

Gauge. 40 lbs. 50 lbs. 60 lbs. 70 lbs. 80 lbs. 90 lbs. 100 lbs. 


25 lbs. .. . 

375. 

595. 

833. 

1075. 

1310. 

1548. 

1786. 

30 lbs.... 

221. 

442. 

663. 

884. 

1105. 

1326. 

1548. 

35 lbs.... 

102. 

306. 

510. 

714. 

924. 

1123. 

1327. 

40 lbs.... 

• • • • 

187. 

374. 

561. 

748. 

936. 

1123. 

45 lbs.... 

• • • • 

85. 

255. 

425. 

596. 

765. 

936. 

50 lbs.... 

• • • • 

• • • • 

153. 

306. 

460. 

612. 

765. 

55 lbs.-... 

• • • • 

• • • • 

68. 

204. 

330. 

476. 

612. 

60 lbs.... 




119. 

237. 

375. 

476. 

65 lbs.... 




51. 

153. 

255. 

357. 













316 


TRACTION FARMING 


For an tanks of other than 1,000 gallons capacity di¬ 
vide the above figures by 1,000 (move decimal point three 
P aces to the left) and multiply result by number of El¬ 
ions the tank holds. a 

It takes .43 lbs. pressure per square inch for every foot 

tank " For f forced . upward in a standpipe or elevated 

43 = s r ih ° e ’ lf W3ter 15 forced 20 ft ' hi ? h > 20 X 
ft t,- u' 6 - bS ' pressure per sc I uar e inch is secured; 40 

• igh gives 17.2 lbs. pressure; 60 ft. high, 25 8 lbs 
pressure. ius. 

Reversing the foregoing proposition, every pound 

srr5S.T,£? rr** 

3 t“J \^ b ' 25 «“■ elevate, water 

57.7 ft. high; 35 lbs., 80.8 ft. high, etc. 

Amount of Water Required for Stock and Other Pur- 

St”":? . ;, nk 5 ,o i° >«• 

n v gallons per day. Hogs drink 2 to 2 1 / 

WitHoto 1 "soTbs Sheep drink 1 t0 3 gallons per da y- 
y .. in Z l n u press “ re per s< 5 uare inch, an ordinary 

A I &a den h , ose nozzIe requires about 6 gallons oer 
minute, when throwing a solid str Mm ° / per 

.«* -.a spr,«. *,? 2 f 

'“" ; ,> 8 “ 28 

.. 45 ^ requires about l*/ 2 gallons to fill m 

ordinary lavatory; 30 gallons to fill the average bath tub 
It requires about 7 to 10 gallons to flush a closet 300 
gallons is a fair estimate of the amount of water required 
by the average sized family in 24 hours Q d ; 

P ° W “' driven outfits should be considered where 

■connection it may be stated that the } th 

y b drea tnat the amount of water 


WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 


31T 


used for general purposes will be greatly increased when 
the water supply system is put in service. This does not 
imply that a family will be extravagant in the use of 
water merely because it is easily obtained. It means that 
all too small an amount is used where the family depends 
on other methods. In addition to a plentiful use of 
water for domestic purposes and for proper stock water¬ 
ing, it is obvious that much will, if available, be used 
for other needs. Thus, the garden will not be allowed 
to perish in case of drought, nor will lawns and flower 
beds be permitted to die down in the summer. 

Where one desires to draw water from a single well,, 
or from a well or cistern, the pneumatic tank method is 
frequently used. In this case water is pumped into an 
air-tight tank, the compressive force on the air serving 
to force the water to the taps. 

Regardless of the system selected, a hand operated 
outfit should not be considered unless the water to be 
used is confined to purely domestic purposes. A consid¬ 
erable amount of physical energy is required to get a 
supply of water stored under a pressure of from 60 to 
70 lbs. As fire protection is one of the great features 
in favor of water pressure systems, it will readily be seen 
that low pressure outfits are not advisable. Where water 
from cistern for bathroom, sink, etc., is all that is to be 
pumped, a hand outfit may be found satisfactory. It is. 
not at all fitted for service where stock watering, lawn 
sprinkling, carriage washing and similar purposes are 
to be served. The plan of a new house should invariably 
incorporate a water system even though the installation 
of the system is not to be made immediately. In the same 
way in the selection of a kitchen range or furnace it 
should be seen to that the firebox has pipes for water 


318 TRACTION FARMING 

heating, or at least so arranged that these may easily be 

put in place. Heating from the range is in a measure 

/ 



moie satisfactory than from a furnace, as the range is 
more likely to be used the year round. Plans for the 
barn should also be made with a view to having water 

















WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 


319 


brought into the building, as inclement weather makes 
caring for stock a hardship. This is especially true dur¬ 
ing the severe weather of winter. With a water pres¬ 
sure system it becomes an easy matter to fit up a tank 
in all buildings where animals are kept so that stock 
can be watered without exposure. 

For farm homes, water can be delivered under pres¬ 
sure by three different methods : First, the elevated tank; 
second, the pneumatic tank; and third, the auto-pneumatic 
pump. The elevated tank system depends for its working 
upon a tank placed on a substructure high enough to 
give sufficient pressure to force water to the highest story 
of the building. 

Pneumatic Tank System .—A pneumatic tank system 
consists of a force pump, an air-tight steel tank, neces¬ 
sary pipe, fittings and valves, and power for operating 
the pump. The system may be a small one, operated by 
hand or windmill, or it may consist of a large pump ope¬ 
rated by a powerful engine, with two or more tanks of 
large capacity. 

Water is pumped into the bottom of the tank near one 
end. See Figure 2. To the bottom of the tank near the 
other end is connected the discharge main from which 
branches may be extended to the kitchen, bathroom, 
laundry, etc. 

Why Air Is Required .—If water is pumped into the 
tank until a pressure gauge registers 25 lbs., water can 
be forced 60 ft. above the tank. If a faucet 20 ft. above 
the tank is opened, water is discharged until the pres¬ 
sure falls to 8.6 lbs., when it stops. The tank does not 
have pressure enough to deliver the remaining water 20 
ft. high. It is also found that when air is compressed 
in the same tank with water, the water gradually absorbs 



320 


TRACTION FARMING 


the air, and the air requires constant renewal. Both trou¬ 
bles are overcome by compressing excess air in with the 
water until the pressure gauge registers 25 lbs., when 
the tank is half full of water. This excess air pressure 
is secured in a number of ways: (1) An air intake valve 
may be placed in the suction pipe, and controlled by hand; 
(2) a combined air and water pump may be used; (3) 
when power is available, use an air compressor, which 
may be operated whenever air is required. The “work¬ 
ing capacity” of a tank is about two-thirds its total ca¬ 
pacity. 



FIGURE 3. 
Bathroom. 


The tank usually used has a capacity of 420 gallons, 
winch, allowing one-third for air space, will deliver about 

280 gallons of water at one pumping. Other sizes of 
tanks can be used. 

For operating the pump by power, a small gasoline 
engine may be placed as shown in Figure 2. the power 


















WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 


321 


being transmitted from engine to pump by means of a 
belt. Pairbanks-Morse Co. supply an engine of this type 
which they designate as “Jack Junior/’ 1 h.p. The pump 
should be set within 18 or 20 ft. of low water level. The 
steel tank for a pneumatic tank system should be made 
of boiler steel, riveted same as a steam boiler, and tested 
before shipment to a pressure of 125 lbs. per square inch. 
They are furnished with one head dished outwards and 
the other head dished inwards. A manhole for cleaning 
purposes should be fitted in one end. Figure 2 shows the 
tank in a horizontal position. It may be placed in a 
vertical position if more convenient. In the vertical tank 
the inlet pipe is connected to one side of the tank near 
the bottom end, while the discharge main connects to 
the opposite side near bottom end. 

Auto-Pneumatic Pump .—The auto-pneumatic pump can 
be used in wells, springs or lakes, where the water is 
free from sand and mud, and where the water does not 
have to be lifted more than 100 ft., measured from the 
base of the pump to the highest point of delivery, or 
where the working pressure does not exceed 65 lbs. 

This method makes it possible to deliver water under 
pressure without water storage;, thus rendering it pos¬ 
sible to have a constant supply of fresj water direct from 
the source of supply. 

The system consists o? one or jfiore auto-pneumatic 
pumps, air-tight steel tank, and air compressor, and an 
engine or electric motor for driving the compressor. No 
water tank is required, for nothing is stored but com¬ 
pressed air. Compressed air is piped down to the auto- 
pneumatic pump in the well/and the water is discharged 
through^ pipe from the jmmp to the faucets, cool and 
fresh. ? 




322 


TRACTION FARMING 


An auu/matic device makes the compressed air force 
the water out of two pump cylinders alternately, with a 
steady, continuous flow. The pump operates only while 
water is drawn at the faucets. It starts automatically 



FIGURE 4. 
Kitchen. 


when the faucet is opened and stops when it is closed. 

Two or more auto-pneumatic pumps may be install 

in different wells or cisterns and connected to the sam 
air tank. 

. A intake weiI is built "ear the bank of a lake and a: 
intake pipe, protected by a strainer, connects it with th 
ake. At slight cost a filtering box of fine gravel an- 
charcoal may be constructed in the lake to protect th 

rmrnos' ^i *' 5 "7 ** Water ' S P urified for drinkin: 
P PO-es. The intake well forms a protection for th 

pump, and permits the system to be used throughout th 
winter. & 











WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 


323 


The power and air compressor may be installed in the 
basement, but is usually erected in a garage, boat house, 
stable or special building. The water and air pipes 
should be laid below frost line. Water jacket of engine 
and compressor should be carefully drained in freezing 
weather. 



FIGURE 5. 

Laundry. 

Valuable Information .—For the following tables, and 
other information, the author desires to acknowledge his 
indebtedness to Fairbanks-Morse Co., of Chicago. 

FRICTION OF WATER IN PIPES. 

Friction loss, in pounds pressure per square inch, for 
each 100 ft. of length in different size clean iron pipe, 
discharging given quantities of water in gallons per 
minute. 










324 


TRACTION FARMING 


Gallons 

per 


Sizes of Pipes— 

-Inside Diameter. 


Minute. 

Ya in. 

1 in. 

1)4 in/' 

l l / 2 in. 

2 in. 

2 p 2 in. 

5 

3.3 

0.84 

0.31 

0.12 

0.03 

• • • • 

10 

13.0 

3.16 

1.05 

0.47 

0.12 

0.03 

15 

28.7 

6.98 

2.38 

0.97 

0.27 

0.06 

20 

50.4 

12.3 

4.07 

1.66 

0.42 

0.13 

25 

78.0 

19.0 

6.40 

2.62 

0.67 

0.21 

30 

• • • • 

27.5 

.9.15 

3.75 

0.91 

0.30 

35 

• • • • 

37.0 

12.4 

5.05 

1.26 

0.42 

40 

• • • • 

48.0 

16.1 

6.52 

1.60 

0.51 

45 

• • • • 

• • • • 

20.2 

8.15 

2.01 

0.62 

50 

• 

• • • • 

• • • • 

24.9 

10.0 

2.44 

0.81 

75 

• • • • 

• • • • 

56.1 

22.4 

5.32 

1.80 

100 

• • • • 

• • • • 

• • • • 

39.0 

9.46 

3.20 


PUMPING CAPACITY OF AIR TANKS. 


Approximate number of gallons that can be drawn 
from faucets by auto-pneumatic pumps at various work- 
ing piessuie by the expansion of compressed air from an 
air tank holding 1,000 gallons, or 135 cu. ft (42 in X 
14 ft.) 


Working 
Pressure 
on Pump 
Gauge. 40 lbs. 


Total Pressure in Tank at Start. 


25 lbs. .. . 

357. 

595. 

833. 

30 lbs... . 

221. 

442. 

663. 

35 lbs.... 

102. 

306. 

510. 

40 lbs... . 

• • • • 

187. 

374. 

45 lbs.... 

• • • • 

85. 

255. 

50 lbs.... 

• • • • 

• • • • 

153. 

55 lbs. ... 

• • • • 

• • • • 

68. 

60 lbs. . . . 




65 lbs. 


50 lbs. 60 lbs. 70 lbs. 80 lbs. 90 lbs. 

1075. 1310. 1548. 
884. 1105. 1326. 
714. 924. 1123. 

561. 748. 936. 

425. 596. 765. 

306. 460. 612. 

204. 330. 476. 

119. 237. 375. 

51. 153. 255. 


100 lbs. 

1786. 

1548. 

1327. 

1123. 

936. 

765. 

612. 

476. 

357. 




















WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 325 

# For air tanks of other than 1,000 gallons capacity, di¬ 
vide the above figures by 1,000 (move decimal point three 
places to the left) and multiply result by number of gal¬ 
lons the tank holds. 

The size of pipe is designated by the inside diameter. 
The size of valves and fittings is designated by the size 
of pipe for which they are threaded. 

A gallon of water weighs 8% lbs. and contains 231 cu- 
in. A cubic foot of water weighs 62)4 lbs. and contains 
1,728 cu. in., or 7)4 gallons; 31)4 gallons of water con¬ 
stitute a barrel. 


TABLE FOR CONVERTING FEET HEAD OF 
WATER INTO PRESSURE PER SQUARE INCH. 


Feet 

Pounds 

per 

Head 

Square 

1 

Inch 

.43 

2 

.87 

3 

1.30 

4 

1.73 

5 

2.17 

6 

2.60 

7 

3.03 

8 

3.40 

9 

3.90 

10 

4.33 

15 

6.50 

20 

8.66 



Pounds 

Feet 

per 

Head 

Square 


Inch 

25 

10.83 

30 

' 12.99 

35 

- 15.16 

40 

17.32 

45 

19.49 

50 

21.65 

55 

23.82 

60 

25.99 

65 

28.15 

70 

30.32 

75 

32.48 

80 

34.65 



Pounds 

Feet 

per 

Head 

Square 


Inch 

85 

36.81 

90 

38.98 

95 

41.14 

100 

43.31 

110 

47.64 

120 

51.97 

130 

56.30 

140 

60.63 

150 

64.96 

160 

69.29 

170 

73.63 

180 

77.96 





326 TRACTION FARMING 

TABLE FOR CONVERTING PRESSURE PER 
SQUARE INCH INTO FEET HEAD OF WATER. 


Pounds 


Pounds 

per 

Feet 

per 

Square 

Head 

Square 

Inch 


Inch 

1 

2.31 

25 

2 

4.62 

30 

3 

6.93 

35 

4 

9.24 

40 

5 

11.54 

45 

6 

13.85 

50 

7 

16.16 

55 

8 

18.47 

60 

9 

20.78 

65 

10 

23.09 

70 

15 

34.63 

75 

20 

46.18 

80 



Pounds 


Feet 

per 

Feet 

Head 

Square 

Head 


Inch 


57.72 

85 

196.26 

69.27 

90 

207.81 

80.81 

95 

219.35 

92.36 

100 

230.90 

103.90 

- 110 

253.98 

115.45 

120 

277.07 

126.99 

125 

288.62 

138.54 

130 

300.16 

150.08 

140 

323.25 

161.63 

150 

346.34 

173.17 

160 

369.43 

184.72 

170 

392.52 


TIME REQUIRED TO CHARGE AIR TANK. 

To estimate the time in minutes to charge air tank from 
zero to a maximum pressure, divide the total number of 
gallons in tank by 7*4, multiply result by maximum pres¬ 
sure in pounds per square inch, and divide by 15 (one at- 
mospheie), and multiply by displacement of compressor 
in cubic feet per minute. Add 20 per cent to 25 per cent 
for loss due to friction, slippage, etc. 

















WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 327 


TABLE SHOWING NUMBER OF GALLONS OF 
WATER DELIVERED AND HEIGHT TO WHICH 
IT WILL BE PROJECTED THROUGH NOZZLES. 


Pounds 

Diameter 

^4-Inch 

of Nozzles 
24- 

Inch 

Pressure 

Height 

Gallons 

Height 

Gallons 

at Nozzle 

Jet, Feet 

Per Min. 

Jet, Feet 

Per Min, 

4.3 

9.37 

3.6 

9.7 

14.5 

8.6 

17.5 

5.1 

18.7 

20.6 

13.0 

24.4 

6.4 

27.2 

25.2 

17.3 

30.0 

7.3 

35.0 

29.6 

21.6 

34.0 

8.1 

42.2 

32.5 

26.0 

37.5 

8.9 

48.7 

35.6 

30.3 

39.0 

9.6 

55.0 

38.5 

34.6 

40.0 

10.3 

60.0 

41.2 

39.0 

39.4 

10.9 

65.0 

43.7 

43.3 

37.5 

11.5 

69.0 

46.1 

52.0 

• • • • 

• • • • 

75.0 

50.4 

60.6 

• • • • 

• • • • 

79.0 

54.5 

69.3 

• • • • 

• • • • 

80.0 

58.1 

Pounds 

Diameter 

54-Inch 

of Nozzles 

U-Inch 

Pressure 

Height 

Gallons 

Height 

Gallons 

at Nozzle 

Jet, Feet 

Per Min. 

Jet, Feet 

Per Mia 

• 4.3 

9.7 

22.7 . 

9.8 

32.8 

8.6 

19.0 

32.2 

19.2 

46.2 

13.0 

27.7 

39.4 

28.3 

56.8 

17.3 

36.0 

45.5 

37.0 

65.5 

21.6 

44.0 

50.9 

45.0 

73.3 

26.0 

51.0 

55.7 

52.0 

80.3 

30.3 

58.0 

60.1 

60.0 

86.8 

34.6 

64.0 

64.3 

67.0 

92.6 

39.0 

70.0 

68.3 

73.0 

98.4 

43.3 

75.0 

72.0 

79.0 

103.7 

52.0 

84.0 

78.8 

90.0 

113.5 

60.6 

91.0 

85.2 

99.0 

122.4 

69.3 

96.0 

90.8 

106.0 

131.2 




328 


TRACTION FARMING 




General Information.—A cubic foot per second equals 
450 gallons per minute. An acre-foot is 325,829 gallons. 
The term “miner’s inch’’ of water is more or less indefi¬ 
nite, but is approximately equal to a flow of 11% gallons 
per minute. This varies in different states from about 
9 to 13 gallons per minute. 

Diameter multiplied by 3.1416 equals circumference. 
Circumference multiplied by .3183 equals diameter. The 
square of the diameter multiplied bv .7854 equals area. 

To find, the diameter of a pump cylinder required to 
move a given quantity of water per minute, the piston 
travel, being 100 ft. per minute, divide the number of 
gallons by four, then extract the square root, and the re¬ 
sult will be the diameter in inches. 

To find the area of required pipe, the volume of water 
being known, multiply the number of cubic feet of water 
by 144 and divide the product by the velocity in feet per 
minute. This gives the area of pipe, from which it is 
easy to determine the diameter. 

To find the velocity in feet per minute necessary to dis~ 
charge a given volume of water in a given time, multiply 
the number of cubic feet of water by 144 and divide the 
product by the area of the pipe in inches. 

In figuring the actua'l horse power required to operate 

a pump, the “friction head’’ should be added to the “actual 

head,” or elevation. This is given in the table on the pre- 
ceding page. 

Using the above formulae and including the “friction 
head, will give the theoretical horse power. To figure 

the actual horse power required it is necessary to know 
the efficiency of the pump. To illustrate: 

If the efficiency of a small pump is 33 1-3 per cent the 
actual horse power required is three times the theoretical. 





WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 


329* 


If the efficiency is 50 per cent, the actual horse power is 
double the theoretical. 

If the efficiency is 66 2-3 per cent, the actual horse 
power is 1V 2 times the theoretical, etc. 

ACRES IRRIGATED BY VARYING QUANTITIES 

OF WATER. 

Making due allowance for evaporation, it requires 28,- 
320 gallons of water to irrigate one acre one inch deep. 

The following table taken from government tests shows 
the number of acres irrigated in 1, 10 and 24 hours,, 
pumping various quantities, and irrigating various depths,, 
local conditions, of course, vary and this table has been 
compiled from a comparison of various sections. 

Gallons Acres Irrigated in 1 Hour 


Pumped 

1 In. 

2 In. 

3 In. 

4 In. 

5 In. 

6 In. 

per Min. 

Deep 

Deep 

Deep 

Deep 

Deep 

Deep 

600 . 

1.3 

.6 

.4 

.3 

.2 

.2 

824 . 

1.8 

.9 

.6 

.4 

.3 

.3 

944 . 

2.1 

1.0 

.7 

.5 

.4 

.3 

988 . 

2.2 

1.1 

.7 

.5 

.4 

.3 

1000 . 

2.2 

1.1 

.7 

.5 

.4 

.3 

1200 . 

2.6 

1.3 

.9 

.6 

.5 

.4 

1500 . 

3.3 

1.6 

1.1 

.8 

.6 

.5 

2000 . 

4.4 

2.2 

1.4 

1.1 

.9 

.7 

Gallons 

Acres Irrigated 

in 10 

Hours 


Pumped 

1 In. 

2 In. 

3 In. 

4 In. 

5 In. 

6 In. 

per Min. 

Deep 

Deep 

Deep 

Deep 

Deep 

Deep 

600 . 

13.2 

6.6 

4.4 

3.3 

2.6 

2.2- 

824 . 

18.2 

9.1 

6.0 

4.5 

3.6 

3.0 

944 . 

20.8 

10.4 

6.9 

5.2 

4.1 

3.4 

988 . 

21.8 

10.9 

‘7.2 

5.4 

4.3 

3.6 

1000 . 

22.1 

11.0 

7.3 

5.5 

4.4 

3.7 

1200 . 

26.5 

13.2 

8.8 

6.6 

5.3 

4.4 

1500 _^.. 

33.1 

16.5 

11.0 

8.2 

6.6 

5.5 

2000 . 

44.2 

22,1 

14.7 

11.0 

8.8 

7.3 

















33 ° TRACTION FARMING 

Gallons Acres Irrigated in 24 Hours 

Pumped 1 In. 2 In. 3 In. 4 In. 5 In. 6 In. 

per Min. Deep Deep Deep Deep Deep Deep 

600 . 31.8 15.9 10.6 7.9 6.3 5.3 

824 . 43.7 .'21.8 14.5 10.9 8.7 7.3 

944 . 50.0 25.0 16.7 12.5 10.0 8.3 

988 . 52.4 26.2 17.4 13.1 10.4 8.7 

1000 . 53.0 26.5 17.6 13.2 10.6 8.8 

1200 . 63.6 31.8 21.2 15.9 12.7 10.6 

1500 . 79.5 39.7 26.5 19.9 15.9 13.2 

2000 . 106.0 53.0 35.3 26.5 21.2 17.6 

It requires from 10 ins. to 20 ins. of water per acre to 
produce a crop by irrigation, the average being 16 ins. 
The actual amount required depends upon the crop and 
the season. 
















N 


CHAPTER II. 

ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR FARM HOMES 

The gasoline engine makes it possible for the farmer 
to have his house and adjacent outbuildings equipped 
with electric light at a moderate expense. The safety 
and cleanliness of electric light as compared with kero¬ 
sene lamps, gas, or in fact any other method of lighting, 
is beyond all question. Especially does this apply in the 
case of the barn, the dairy and other necessary outbuild¬ 
ings, where, instead of having to use matches for lighting 
the gas jet or lamp, which at the best supply but a dim 
light covering a limited area, an abundance of clear white 
light is instantly available by the turning of a switch. 

In the house, in addition to the inestimable advantage 
of having the best of light in the evening, electric fans 
may be installed, which will furnish cooling breezes in 
the summer, while electric flat irons, electrically operated 
sewing machines, vacuum cleaners, and even small cook¬ 
ing devices, will greatly lessen household work. 

Gas or oil engines for operating electric lighting sys¬ 
tems require to be specially constructed in order to secure 
close speed regulation, which is a paramount requirement 
in this particular service. 

They should be equipped with a throttling governor in¬ 
stead of the ordinary hit-and-miss type, and the fly¬ 
wheels should be extra heavy in order to insure a 
smooth-running engine. The engine can be belted to the 

331 



traction farming 

dynamo, or if desired, a direct-connected outfit may be 

obtained in which the dynamo is connected direct to the 
engine shaft. 

A speed regulation within 2 per cent should be obtained 

when running under a constant load. This insures a good 
steady light. 

Figure 6 shows a combined electric light and pumping 
plant, which can be utilized for either purpose. 



figure 6. 

Combined Fresh Water and Electric Light System. 


Figure 7 shows an outfit designed exclusively for elec 

outfit"^) ^ 1S , CaHed a l0W volta S e > residence light 
3 g h ° , Th ' S p!ant consists a 50-Hght dynamo, 

" F b ” e ° r kerosene en g> n e, an endless belt fo 

50 Ifohl withfiT 0 ’ 3 Swh , ch l 0ard > a borage battery an, 
hanging^ ^ and *** ™ed and ready fo 

The dynamo is a 25-amnere 32 vnh- « n- i 

pound wound machine. It is automatic P ° Ur com 

s automatic in operation am 
















ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR FARM HOMES 333 

maintains a constant voltage, whether one lamp, or all 
are in use, and thus generates just sufficient current to 
supply the demand. It is self-oiling, requires little atten¬ 
tion, and the low voltage at which it operates is prac¬ 
tically harmless. 



FIGURE 7. 

Gasoline Engine. Switchboard. Storage Battery. Dynamo. 


Figure 8 is an enlarged view of the switchboard, show¬ 
ing the various necessary devices accompanying it. By 
closing the main switch, current is sent through the lamp 
circuit, and closing the two battery switches charges the 
storage battery; while by pulling these two switches and 
the dynamo or main switch open, the lamps will receive 
current from the storage battery. The lamps to be used 
with this lighting outfit consume 15 watts each and give 
12 candle power, their average life being 1,000 hrs. each 
when operated at their normal voltage. 

The storage battery furnished with this outfit is in¬ 
tended as an auxiliary to furnish lights when it is not con- 







TRACTION FARMING 

venient to run the engine. When fully charged it will run 
eighteen lights for 2V 4 hrs., thirteen lights for 4% hrs., 
or nine lights for r ty 2 hrs. For ordinary occasions it will 



% 


FIGURE 8. 


be found large enough to run the lights of a small resi¬ 
dence one or two evenings without running the engine, 

but this is not so efficient as running lights direct from the 
dynamo. 


The normal rating of the battery is the number of lamps 
that it will run for hrs., and it will run a smaller num¬ 
ber for a longer time; for example, one-half as many 
for 15 hrs., or one-fourth as many for 30 hrs.; and when 
completely discharged it takes about 10 hrs. to completely 




ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR FARM HOMES 


335 


recharge it. Batteries should be selected that have ample 
capacity for the work contemplated, in order that it may 
not be necessary to run the engine at inconvenient times 
to carry the desired number of lights or to recharge thq 
battery. 

If it is desired, stronger lights than 12 candle power 
can be used, but care should be taken not to overload 
the standard 50-light dynamo. For every three 16 can¬ 
dle power Mazda lamps that are put on the circuit, take 
off four of the 12 candle power Mazda lamps; for every 
three 20 candle power Mazda lamps that are put on the 
circuit, take off five of the 12 candle power Mazda lamps. 

The electrical unit of work is a watt. A kilowatt (k.w.) 
is 1,000 watts. 

The watt rating of a machine is the product of the 
volts multiplied by the amperes. 

While the engine will deliver more than 2 h.p., never¬ 
theless the electrical capacity of the plant is limited to the 
capacity of the dynamo. 

The plant will run as many lights, motors or other elec¬ 
trical devices, as desired, provided they are all made for 
30 volts, and the total watt rating of all of them that are 
in circuit at any one time does not exceed 750 watts. 

The 12 candle power Mazda lamps each take 15 watts; 
50 of them, therefore, require 750 watts, which is prac¬ 
tically the capacity of the outfit. 

The 16 candle power Mazda lamps each take 20 watts, 
and the 20 candle power, 25 watts. 

Electric motors, flat irons, curling irons, toasters, fans, 
etc., are all rated in watts and can be obtained for 30 
volts, so it is easy to figure out just how many different 
devices, and what sizes may be operated simultaneously 
by the current supplied from a 50-light dynamo. For 



-336 


TRACTION FARMING 


instance, if it is desired to run an electric motor that ro 
quires obO to 400 watts, then while it is running there 

would be only about 350 to 370 watts available for lights 
or other work. 

General Information About Electric Lighting and 
Power Plants v Electric power is measured in kilowatts, 
usually abbreviated k.w.; 746 watts equal one horse 
pow er and 1,000 watts equal one kilowatt, which is, there¬ 
fore, equal to 1 1-3 h.p. 

. Dynamos are rated in kilowatts—a 1 k.w. dynamo will 
give out electric power equal to 1 1-3 h.p., but it will take 
a ittle more than 1 1-3 h.p. to drive it because there are 

slight losses due to friction in the bearings and heatm- 
of the wires. 

Dynamos cannot be rated in lamps, for the reason that 
lamps take different amounts of electricity according to 
their candle power and the material of which they are 
niade, and because there are losses in the wire between the 
dynamo and the lamps which use up a part of the dyna¬ 
mo s output and which vary with the size and length of 
the wire. 

The ordinary 16 candle power, carbon filament lamp 
takes 50 watts—some take more than this and some less 
according to their efficiency. Monarch Mazda lamps are 
made in various sizes; 15-watt lamps (low voltage only) 
give 12 candle power, 25-watt lamps give 20 candle power 

0-watt lamps give 32 candle power, and 60-watt lamps 
give 50 candle power. 1 

Voltage is the pressure at which the electric current is 
generated and transmitted. Small residence plants are ‘ 
operated at 30 volts—large lighting plants are usually 
operated at 110 to 220 volts. 

Small dynamos are usually belt driven, but may be 



ELECTRIC.LIGHT FOR FARM HOMES 337 

direct connected to the engine. Large dynamos are often 
direct connected because floor space is saved and the use 
of a belt avoided, but this system is more costly than 
belt driving and its chief advantage lies in the economy 
of space. 

A steady, uniform speed of the dynamo is necessary for 
electric lighting, otherwise the lights will flicker. Hence, 
a close regulating high grade engine is necessa**' 




INDEX 


Action of Gas Engine, Explanation of. . .. 

Advance—Rumely Tractors . 

—Carbureter . 

—Crankshaft . 

—Cooling System ... 

—Cylinders . 

—Ignition . 

—Motor . 

—Reverse Drive . 

—Transmission . 

—Valves . 

Advancing Point of Ignition, Reason for 

Air Locks in the Fuel Pipe. 

Air Tank, Time Required to Charge.... 

Air Tanks, Pumping Capacity of. 

Alcohol as Fuel. 

Alcohol, Heating Value of. 

Anti-Freezing Solutions . 

Arrangements of Cells. 

Aultman-Taylor Gas Tractor. 

Controlling Mechanism . 

—Cylinder Heads . 

—Dimensions and Details. 

—Ignition . 

—Lubrication.. 

—Motor . 

Motor Base or Crankcase. 

—Pistons . 

—Speed Control . 

Auto-Pneumatic Pump . 

' 338 


.... 10 
.299-308 
.... 304 
.... 303 
.... 304 
.... 302 ' 
... 304 
.299-302 
.307-308 
.305-307 
.303-304 
... 96 

... 154 
... 326 
... 315 
... 24 

... 25 
... 136 
... 106 
202-214 
... 212 
... 205 
213-214 
... 211 
... 211 
... 204 
... 208 
... 205 
... 208 
... 321 











































INDEX 


339 


Avery Farm Tractor. 165-179 

—Cooling System . 171 

—Fuel System . 169 

—Ignition System . 169 

—Lubrication . 171 

—Motor . 167 

—Motor Cultivator . 176 

—Self Guide Attachment. 176 

—Transmission of Power to Drivers.172-176 

Backfiring, Gasoline Engine. 132 

Balancing of (Engines. 43 

Bates All Steel Tractor.161-165 

Battery Box, The. 124 

Battery Ignition . 104 

Battery Outfit . 121 

Batteries, Dry . 104 

Batteries, Fluid . 113 

Batteries, Storage . 107 

Beau de Rochas Cycle. 12 

Box Coil Connection. 117 

Broken Spark Plug. 156 

Calcium Chloride . 137 

Carbon in Cylinders. 133 

Carbureter. 66 

—Adjustment of . 89 

—Cotton, Double Tube. 87 

—Non-Adjustable . 83 

—Spraying Nozzles. 127 

—Vaporizing, Functions of the. 128 

Carbureters, Action of. „74 

—Types of . 73 

Case Gas—Oil Tractors.242-264 

—Clutch . 247 

—Connecting Rods . 244 

—Cooling System . 249 

—Crankcase . 244 

—Crankshaft . 244 

—Ignition . 247 

—Lubrication . 246 











































INDEX 

—Pistons . 

—Transmission . 

Case 10-20 Kerosene Tractor. 

—Frame .. 7. 

Case 12-25 Gas Tractor. 

—Crankshaft . 

—Connecting Rods and Piston Pins 

Cooling System . 

—Cylinder Head . 

—Lubrication . 

—Speed . 

Case 20-40 Gas-Oil Tractor. 

—Clutch . 

—Cooling System. 

—Crankcase . 

—Crankshaft and Cam. ’ 

—Cylinders . 

—Governor. 

—Ignition . 

—Lubrication . 

—Motor . 

—Self-Steering Device . 

Case 30-60 Gas-Oil Tractor_. . . 

—Ignition . 

—Lubrication . 

—Motor . 

—Transmission . 

Caterpillar Tractor . 

—Belt Pulley . 

—Carbureter . 

Combustion Chamber 

—Connecting Rods . 

—Cooling System . 

—Crankcase . 

—Crankshaft . 

—Governor . 

—Ignition . 

—Impulse Starter. 

—Independent Track Control..* 


.... 246 
.247-249 
.249-251 
.... 249 
.251-256 
.... 253 
.253-255 
.... 256 
.... 255 
.... 255 
.... 256 
.257-262 
.... 262 
.260-262 
,... 257 
... 257 
... 258 
... 260 
... 262 
... 260 
... 257 
... 262 
262-264 1 
... 264 
...264 1 
...263 
...264 1 
214-242 1 
...230 1 
239-242 1 


... 242 
... 227 
... .230 
... 226 
... 226 
... 230 
233-235 
235-237 
... 222 




















































INDEX 341 

—Lubrication. 231 2 33 

Magneto, Timing of, to Motor. 237-239 

—Master Clutch. . . 999 

—Motor . 224 

—Motor, Dimensions of. 225 

Pistons and Rings... 227 2^9 

Rear Track Shaft... ooi 999 

rp •• ••••••••••»., *“'“ w 

* J- ransmission .... 223 224 

~J rack .217-218 

—Trucks .218-220 

Truck Wheels.•.220-221 

— Valves . 224 

Charging Storage Batteries.. 

Compression . j 2 

Cooling Systems . 235 

C y |inder . 62-64 

—Boring . 64 

—Construction. 55 

—Knocking or Pounding in. I 47 

—Lubrication . 244 

—Soot in . 246 

—Sweating. 55 

Cylinders, Carbon in. 233 

—Engine . 53 

Delco Ignition System. 101 

“Don’ts”. 157 

Dry Batteries . 204 

Dynamo for Electric Lighting. 336 , 

Electric Current, Action of. 118 

Electric Lighting and Power Plants, General Informa¬ 
tion About . 335 

Electric Light for Farm Homes.331-337 

Engine Fires Irregularly. 155 

Engines for Operating Electric Lighting System. 331 

Explosion . 12 

Expulsion . 12 

Farm Tractors, Types of Gasoline and Oil. 161 

Float Feed Valve. 74 

Fluid, Batteries . 113, 










































342 


INDEX 


Four Cycle Engine. 

Four Stroke Cycle. 

Fuel Consumption of Gas Engines. 

Fuel, Cost of. 

—Tests . 

—Vaporizing of . 

Gasoline Engine Troubles. 

Gasoline Farm Tractors. 

Glycerine . 

Grades of Gasoline and Fuel Oil. 

Heating Devices . 

Horse Power Calculations. 

Ignition Mechanism . 

Ignition, Modern . 

Indicated Horse Power. 

Induction . 

International Harvester Kerosene Tractors 

—Automatic Lubrication . 

—Connecting Rod and Crankshaft. 

—Cylinders ... 

—Four Cylinder Motor. 

—Fuel Mixer . 

—Fuel Supply. 

—Ignition . 

—Mogul 10-20 Tractor. 

—Mogul 12-25 Kerosene Tractor. 

—Piston . 

—Speed Regulation . 

—Speed and Transmission. 

—Starting Device . 

—Titan 10-20 Kerosene Tractors. 

Kerosene as Fuel for Traction Engines..., 

Kerosene Gas Producer. 

Knocking or Pounding in Cylinder. 

Leaky Pistons . 

Loss of Power. 

Lubrication . 

Magneto, Timing the. 

Magnetos ... 


fl 

11 
1 o 


29 


.... 126 
.... 152 
...7-161 
,... 138 
... 21 
... 130 
... 149 
... 95 
... 93 

... 149 
... 12 
265-283 

278- 279 
267-269 
281-283 
... 281 
274-277 
... 277 
... 277 
265-269 
269-280 
... 267 
... 278 
271-274 

279- 280 

280- 283 

... 40 

... 42 

... 147 
... 60 
... 156 
... 143 
... 99 

... 96 





















































INDEX 


343 


Minneapolis Farm Tractor. 198-20? 

—Camshaft and Cams. 200 

—Connecting Rods . 200 

—Cooling System.. 201-202 

—Frame . 19 g 

“ Gears . 200-201 

—Ignition . 201 

—Lubrication. 201 

—Motor.198-199 

—Pistons . 200 

—Valves . 199 

Mixer . 66 

Otto Cycle . 12 

Pfanstiehl Coil . 95 

Piston Rings . 4 g 

Pistons, Leaky . 60 

Placing Cells . 106 

Pneumatic Tank System. 319 

Pump, Auto-Pneumatic . 321 

Pumping Capacity of Air Tanks. 315 

Rumely Farm Tractors.283-299 

—Carbureter .294-298 

—Camshaft .288-290 

—Connecting Rods . 292 

—Crankcase .285-287 

—Crankshaft .287-288 

—Cylinders .290-291 

—Gearing and Transmission.298-299 

—Governor . 292 

—Ignition . 293 

—Lubrication . 293 

-—Oil-Pull Motor . 285 

—Pistons.291-292 

—Valves . 292 

Sawyer-Massey Gas-Oil Tractor...188-198 

—Bevel Gear Case.192-193 

—Cams and Camshaft. 196 

—Carbureter . 196 

—Clutch . 192 











































344 


INDEX 


—Compensating Gear . 193 

—Connecting Rods . 198 

—Crankcase .'. 190 

—Crankshaft .190-191 

—Cooling System. 198 

—Cylinders .193-194 

—Gears ... 193 

—Governor . 196-197 

—Ignition . 196 

—Lubrication . 198 

—Motor .188-189 

—Pistons .191-192 

—Piston Rings . 192 

—Speed . 193 

—Valves . 195 

Short Circuits. 125 

Soot in Cylinder. 146 

Spark Adjustments . 131 

Spark Coils—Magnetos.>. 96 

Spark Plug, Auburn . 94 

Spark Plug, Broken . 156 

Starting Engine on a Cold Morning. 141 

Storage Batteries.107-111 

—Capacity of. HI 

—Testing . HI 

Testing Alcohol as Fuel.31-38 

Testing Oil as Fuel... 38 

Testing Lubricating Oils . 145 

Timing the Magneto. 99 

Twin City Farm Tractor.179-188 

—Belt Wheel.185-186 

—Bevel Gear. 286 

—Camshaft .181-182 

—Connecting Rod. 183 

—Cooling System. 186 

—Crankshaft . 184 

—Drawbar . 188 

—Governor . 18 i 

—Ignition . I 84 




















































INDEX 


345 


—Lubrication ... 

—Pistons . Ig^ 

—Piston Pins.'.’ ’.'.’.'.186-187 ' 

—Transmission . Ig^ 

— Valves .:.iso 

Two Cycle Engine. 23 

Types of Gasoline and Oil Farm Tractors.161-309 

Valve .52-59 

—Chambers . 53 

—Float Feed. 74 

—Lifters . 

—Operating Mechanism. 55 

—Stems, Fit of. 55 

—Troubles . 5 g 

Valves ... . ’. ’. ’.53-56 

—Diameter and Lift of. 53 

—Timing of. 55 

Vaporizing of Fuel. 126 

Vaporizing Functions of Carbureter. 128 

Water .316-329 

—Amount of Required for Stock and Other Purposes. 316 

—Friction of, in Pipes. 323 

—Irrigation, Quantity Required per Acre. 329 

—Table for Converting Feet Head of Into Pounds 

Pressure per Square Inch. 325 

—Table for Converting Pressure per Square Inch Into 

Feet Head of Water. 326 

—Table Showing Number of Gallons of Water De¬ 
livered Through Nozzles. 327 

Wood Alcohol. 135 





























Modern Machine Shop Practice 

-INCLUDING--- 

PATTERN MAKING and 
FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

By BROOKES and HAND. 


Two volumes in one. 760 pages, 
fully illustrated. Bound in cloth. 
Size, 6 x 734 inches. Contains: 

MODERN MACHINE SHOP 
PRACTICE. It clearly and con¬ 
cisely describes the properties of 
steam, the indicator, horse-power, 
electricity, machinists’ tools, lathes, 
boring machines, grinding ma¬ 
chines, gear cutting machines, drill presses, planers and 
shapers of various styles, slotting machines, how to use 
them and methods of working, notes on working steel, 
gas furnaces, and fifty-seven valuable reference tables, 
etc. 

PATTERN MAKING AND FOUNDRY PRAC¬ 
TICE. Nearly every problem explained is taken from 
an actual pattern. 

HUNDREDS OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Shipping weight, 3 pounds. 



No. 3L9250 PRICE, $1.98. 


SEARS, ROEBUCK AND CO., 
Chicago. 
































































J 

















LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 


0 013 398 488 4 


















































